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Gender Equality Essay

Everyone should live as they want in society, and there should be no discrimination. Equality in society is achieved when all people, regardless of their caste, gender, colour, profession, and status rank, are considered equal. Another way to describe equality is that everyone gets the same rights and opportunities to develop and progress forward. Here are a few sample essays on ‘Gender Equality’.

Gender Equality Essay

100 Words Essay On Gender Equality

Gender equality is the belief that men and women should be treated and perceived as equals in society, including all areas such as education, employment, and in decision-making positions. It is a fundamental human right and a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world.

Despite significant progress in advancing gender equality, women and girls continue to face barriers and discrimination in many areas of society. This includes the gender pay gap, difficult access to education and employment opportunities, and limited representation in leadership positions. Creating a more equal society benefits everyone, as it leads to greater prosperity and happiness for all. It is important for individuals, communities, and governments to work towards achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls to reach their full potential.

200 Words Essay On Gender Equality

Gender equality is the equal treatment and perception of individuals of all genders in society.

Importance Of Gender Equality

Gender equality is important because it is a fundamental human right and is necessary for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable society. When everyone, regardless of their gender, is treated fairly and has equal opportunities, it can lead to greater prosperity and happiness for all.

Additionally, gender equality can have a positive impact on economic growth and development. When women and girls are able to fully participate and get proper education and employment opportunities, it can lead to increased productivity and innovation. It can also contribute to more balanced and representative decision-making, which can lead to more effective and fair policies and practices.

Furthermore, gender equality is essential for promoting social justice and fairness. When women and girls are marginalized and discriminated against, it can lead to a range of negative outcomes, including poverty, poor health, and reduced opportunities for personal and professional development. Overall, the promotion of gender equality is important for creating a more equal, fair, and just society for all.

Encouraging Gender Equality

Efforts to promote gender equality must involve the active participation and engagement of both men and women. This includes challenging and changing harmful gender norms and stereotypes, and promoting policies and laws that protect and advance the rights of women and girls.

500 Words Essay On Gender Equality

Everyone in the country has the same fundamental freedom to pursue happiness whichever way they see fit. It's possible if people of various backgrounds (race, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic class, gender) are treated with respect and dignity. Gender disparity is the most noticeable kind of prejudice. Gender discrimination persists even in many modern nations and calls for immediate action. When men and women are given the same opportunities, we will achieve gender equality. Furthermore, this essay will outline the many issues women encounter due to gender discrimination.

Prevalence Of Gender Inequality

Gender inequality is prevalent in many sectors and areas of society. Some examples include:

Education: Women and girls may face barriers to accessing education, such as lack of resources, cultural or societal barriers, and discrimination.

Employment: Women and girls may face discrimination in the workplace, including lower pay for the same work as men, lack of promotion opportunities, and limited representation in leadership positions.

Health care: Women and girls may face discrimination and inadequate access to quality health care, particularly in areas related to reproductive and sexual health.

Political representation: Women are often underrepresented in political leadership positions and decision-making processes.

Domestic violence: Women and girls may face higher rates of domestic violence and abuse, and may lack adequate protection and support from the justice system.

Media and advertising: Women and girls are often portrayed in stereotypical and objectifying ways in the media and advertising, which can reinforce harmful gender norms and stereotypes.

Gender inequality is a widespread issue that affects many areas of society, and it is important to work towards promoting gender equality in all sectors.

How India Can Achieve Gender Equality

Achieving gender equality in India will require a multi-faceted approach that involves addressing social norms and stereotypes, strengthening laws and policies, increasing women's representation in leadership positions, promoting women's economic empowerment, and improving access to health care.

Address social norms and stereotypes: It is important to challenge and change harmful gender norms and stereotypes that contribute to gender inequality. This can be done through education campaigns and programs that promote gender equality and challenge traditional gender roles.

Strengthen laws and policies: India can work to strengthen laws and policies that protect and advance the rights of women and girls, such as laws against domestic violence and discrimination, and policies that promote equal pay for equal work and access to education and employment.

Increase women's representation in leadership positions: India can work to increase the representation of women in leadership positions, including in politics, business, and other sectors, to ensure that women have a stronger voice in decision-making processes.

Promote women's economic empowerment: Providing women with access to education, employment, and financial resources can help to empower them and enable them to fully participate in society.

Improve access to health care: Ensuring that women and girls have access to quality health care, including reproductive and sexual health care, is essential for promoting gender equality.

My Experience

I remember one time when I was working as an intern at a small consulting firm. At the end of my internship, I was offered a full-time position. However, when I received the offer letter, I noticed that my male colleagues who were also being offered full-time positions had been offered a higher salary than me, even though we had all performed the same job duties during our internships.

I was frustrated and felt that I was being treated unfairly because of my gender. I decided to bring this issue to the attention of my supervisor, and after some negotiation, I was able to secure a salary that was equal to that of my male colleagues.

This experience taught me the importance of advocating for myself and not accepting inequality, and it also made me more aware of the ways in which gender bias can manifest in the workplace. I believe that it is important for individuals to speak up and take action when they see instances of gender inequality, and for organizations to make a conscious effort to promote gender equality and fairness in all aspects of their operations.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

  • Construction
  • Entertainment
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Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. 

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions. 

Operations Manager

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

GIS officer work on various GIS software to conduct a study and gather spatial and non-spatial information. GIS experts update the GIS data and maintain it. The databases include aerial or satellite imagery, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, and manually digitized images of maps. In a career as GIS expert, one is responsible for creating online and mobile maps.

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Database Architect

If you are intrigued by the programming world and are interested in developing communications networks then a career as database architect may be a good option for you. Data architect roles and responsibilities include building design models for data communication networks. Wide Area Networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), and intranets are included in the database networks. It is expected that database architects will have in-depth knowledge of a company's business to develop a network to fulfil the requirements of the organisation. Stay tuned as we look at the larger picture and give you more information on what is db architecture, why you should pursue database architecture, what to expect from such a degree and what your job opportunities will be after graduation. Here, we will be discussing how to become a data architect. Students can visit NIT Trichy , IIT Kharagpur , JMI New Delhi . 

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Finance Executive

A career as a Finance Executive requires one to be responsible for monitoring an organisation's income, investments and expenses to create and evaluate financial reports. His or her role involves performing audits, invoices, and budget preparations. He or she manages accounting activities, bank reconciliations, and payable and receivable accounts.  

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Investment Banker

An Investment Banking career involves the invention and generation of capital for other organizations, governments, and other entities. Individuals who opt for a career as Investment Bankers are the head of a team dedicated to raising capital by issuing bonds. Investment bankers are termed as the experts who have their fingers on the pulse of the current financial and investing climate. Students can pursue various Investment Banker courses, such as Banking and Insurance , and  Economics to opt for an Investment Banking career path.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

A career as financial advisor is all about assessing one’s financial situation, understanding what one wants to do with his or her money, and helping in creating a plan to reach one’s financial objectives. An Individual who opts for a career as financial advisor helps individuals and corporations reduce spending, pay off their debt, and save and invest for the future. The financial advisor job description includes working closely with both individuals and corporations to help them attain their financial objectives.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Safety Manager

A Safety Manager is a professional responsible for employee’s safety at work. He or she plans, implements and oversees the company’s employee safety. A Safety Manager ensures compliance and adherence to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) guidelines.

A Team Leader is a professional responsible for guiding, monitoring and leading the entire group. He or she is responsible for motivating team members by providing a pleasant work environment to them and inspiring positive communication. A Team Leader contributes to the achievement of the organisation’s goals. He or she improves the confidence, product knowledge and communication skills of the team members and empowers them.

Structural Engineer

A Structural Engineer designs buildings, bridges, and other related structures. He or she analyzes the structures and makes sure the structures are strong enough to be used by the people. A career as a Structural Engineer requires working in the construction process. It comes under the civil engineering discipline. A Structure Engineer creates structural models with the help of computer-aided design software. 

Individuals in the architecture career are the building designers who plan the whole construction keeping the safety and requirements of the people. Individuals in architect career in India provides professional services for new constructions, alterations, renovations and several other activities. Individuals in architectural careers in India visit site locations to visualize their projects and prepare scaled drawings to submit to a client or employer as a design. Individuals in architecture careers also estimate build costs, materials needed, and the projected time frame to complete a build.

Landscape Architect

Having a landscape architecture career, you are involved in site analysis, site inventory, land planning, planting design, grading, stormwater management, suitable design, and construction specification. Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of Central Park in New York introduced the title “landscape architect”. The Australian Institute of Landscape Architects (AILA) proclaims that "Landscape Architects research, plan, design and advise on the stewardship, conservation and sustainability of development of the environment and spaces, both within and beyond the built environment". Therefore, individuals who opt for a career as a landscape architect are those who are educated and experienced in landscape architecture. Students need to pursue various landscape architecture degrees, such as  M.Des , M.Plan to become landscape architects. If you have more questions regarding a career as a landscape architect or how to become a landscape architect then you can read the article to get your doubts cleared. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

A veterinary doctor is a medical professional with a degree in veterinary science. The veterinary science qualification is the minimum requirement to become a veterinary doctor. There are numerous veterinary science courses offered by various institutes. He or she is employed at zoos to ensure they are provided with good health facilities and medical care to improve their life expectancy.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Dental Surgeon

A Dental Surgeon is a professional who possesses specialisation in advanced dental procedures and aesthetics. Dental surgeon duties and responsibilities may include fitting dental prosthetics such as crowns, caps, bridges, veneers, dentures and implants following apicoectomy and other surgical procedures.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Talent Agent

The career as a Talent Agent is filled with responsibilities. A Talent Agent is someone who is involved in the pre-production process of the film. It is a very busy job for a Talent Agent but as and when an individual gains experience and progresses in the career he or she can have people assisting him or her in work. Depending on one’s responsibilities, number of clients and experience he or she may also have to lead a team and work with juniors under him or her in a talent agency. In order to know more about the job of a talent agent continue reading the article.

If you want to know more about talent agent meaning, how to become a Talent Agent, or Talent Agent job description then continue reading this article.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Videographer

Careers in videography are art that can be defined as a creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of an original work of art rather than a simple recording of a simple event. It would be wrong to portrait it as a subcategory of photography, rather photography is one of the crafts used in videographer jobs in addition to technical skills like organization, management, interpretation, and image-manipulation techniques. Students pursue Visual Media , Film, Television, Digital Video Production to opt for a videographer career path. The visual impacts of a film are driven by the creative decisions taken in videography jobs. Individuals who opt for a career as a videographer are involved in the entire lifecycle of a film and production. 

Multimedia Specialist

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story. 

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

Travel Journalist

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

SEO Analyst

An SEO Analyst is a web professional who is proficient in the implementation of SEO strategies to target more keywords to improve the reach of the content on search engines. He or she provides support to acquire the goals and success of the client’s campaigns. 

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Reliability engineer.

Are you searching for a Reliability Engineer job description? A Reliability Engineer is responsible for ensuring long lasting and high quality products. He or she ensures that materials, manufacturing equipment, components and processes are error free. A Reliability Engineer role comes with the responsibility of minimising risks and effectiveness of processes and equipment. 

Corporate Executive

Are you searching for a Corporate Executive job description? A Corporate Executive role comes with administrative duties. He or she provides support to the leadership of the organisation. A Corporate Executive fulfils the business purpose and ensures its financial stability. In this article, we are going to discuss how to become corporate executive.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

Information Security Manager

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

.net developer.

.NET Developer Job Description: A .NET Developer is a professional responsible for producing code using .NET languages. He or she is a software developer who uses the .NET technologies platform to create various applications. Dot NET Developer job comes with the responsibility of  creating, designing and developing applications using .NET languages such as VB and C#. 

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5 Powerful Essays Advocating for Gender Equality

Gender equality – which becomes reality when all genders are treated fairly and allowed equal opportunities –  is a complicated human rights issue for every country in the world. Recent statistics are sobering. According to the World Economic Forum, it will take 108 years to achieve gender parity . The biggest gaps are found in political empowerment and economics. Also, there are currently just six countries that give women and men equal legal work rights. Generally, women are only given ¾ of the rights given to men. To learn more about how gender equality is measured, how it affects both women and men, and what can be done, here are five essays making a fair point.

Take a free course on Gender Equality offered by top universities!

“Countries With Less Gender Equity Have More Women In STEM — Huh?” – Adam Mastroianni and Dakota McCoy

This essay from two Harvard PhD candidates (Mastroianni in psychology and McCoy in biology) takes a closer look at a recent study that showed that in countries with lower gender equity, more women are in STEM. The study’s researchers suggested that this is because women are actually especially interested in STEM fields, and because they are given more choice in Western countries, they go with different careers. Mastroianni and McCoy disagree.

They argue the research actually shows that cultural attitudes and discrimination are impacting women’s interests, and that bias and discrimination is present even in countries with better gender equality. The problem may lie in the Gender Gap Index (GGI), which tracks factors like wage disparity and government representation. To learn why there’s more women in STEM from countries with less gender equality, a more nuanced and complex approach is needed.

“Men’s health is better, too, in countries with more gender equality” – Liz Plank

When it comes to discussions about gender equality, it isn’t uncommon for someone in the room to say, “What about the men?” Achieving gender equality has been difficult because of the underlying belief that giving women more rights and freedom somehow takes rights away from men. The reality, however, is that gender equality is good for everyone. In Liz Plank’s essay, which is an adaption from her book For the Love of Men: A Vision for Mindful Masculinity, she explores how in Iceland, the #1 ranked country for gender equality, men live longer. Plank lays out the research for why this is, revealing that men who hold “traditional” ideas about masculinity are more likely to die by suicide and suffer worse health. Anxiety about being the only financial provider plays a big role in this, so in countries where women are allowed education and equal earning power, men don’t shoulder the burden alone.

Liz Plank is an author and award-winning journalist with Vox, where she works as a senior producer and political correspondent. In 2015, Forbes named her one of their “30 Under 30” in the Media category. She’s focused on feminist issues throughout her career.

“China’s #MeToo Moment” –  Jiayang Fan

Some of the most visible examples of gender inequality and discrimination comes from “Me Too” stories. Women are coming forward in huge numbers relating how they’ve been harassed and abused by men who have power over them. Most of the time, established systems protect these men from accountability. In this article from Jiayang Fan, a New Yorker staff writer, we get a look at what’s happening in China.

The essay opens with a story from a PhD student inspired by the United States’ Me Too movement to open up about her experience with an academic adviser. Her story led to more accusations against the adviser, and he was eventually dismissed. This is a rare victory, because as Fan says, China employs a more rigid system of patriarchy and hierarchy. There aren’t clear definitions or laws surrounding sexual harassment. Activists are charting unfamiliar territory, which this essay explores.

“Men built this system. No wonder gender equality remains as far off as ever.” – Ellie Mae O’Hagan

Freelance journalist Ellie Mae O’Hagan (whose book The New Normal is scheduled for a May 2020 release) is discouraged that gender equality is so many years away. She argues that it’s because the global system of power at its core is broken.  Even when women are in power, which is proportionally rare on a global scale, they deal with a system built by the patriarchy. O’Hagan’s essay lays out ideas for how to fix what’s fundamentally flawed, so gender equality can become a reality.

Ideas include investing in welfare; reducing gender-based violence (which is mostly men committing violence against women); and strengthening trade unions and improving work conditions. With a system that’s not designed to put women down, the world can finally achieve gender equality.

“Invisibility of Race in Gender Pay Gap Discussions” – Bonnie Chu

The gender pay gap has been a pressing issue for many years in the United States, but most discussions miss the factor of race. In this concise essay, Senior Contributor Bonnie Chu examines the reality, writing that within the gender pay gap, there’s other gaps when it comes to black, Native American, and Latina women. Asian-American women, on the other hand, are paid 85 cents for every dollar. This data is extremely important and should be present in discussions about the gender pay gap. It reminds us that when it comes to gender equality, there’s other factors at play, like racism.

Bonnie Chu is a gender equality advocate and a Forbes 30 Under 30 social entrepreneur. She’s the founder and CEO of Lensational, which empowers women through photography, and the Managing Director of The Social Investment Consultancy.

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

Closing the equity gap

Jeni Klugman

Caren Grown and Odera Onyechi

Why addressing gender inequality is central to tackling today’s polycrises

Nonresident Senior Fellow, Africa Growth Initiative, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

As we enter 2023, the term “ polycrisis ” is an increasingly apt way to describe today’s challenges. 1 Major wars, high inflation, and climate events are creating hardship all around the world, which is still grappling with a pandemic death toll approaching 7 million people.

Faced with such daunting challenges, one might well ask why we should be thinking about the gender dimensions of recovery and resilience for future shocks. The answer is simple: We can no longer afford to think in silos. Today’s interlocking challenges demand that sharp inequalities, including gender disparities, must be addressed as part and parcel of efforts to tackle Africa’s pressing issues and ensure the continent’s future success.

“We can no longer afford to think in silos. … Gender disparities, must be addressed as part and parcel of efforts to tackle Africa’s pressing issues and ensure the continent’s future success.”

The burdens of the pandemic have been unequally borne across regions and countries, and between the poor and better off. Inequalities exist around gender—which can be defined as the “socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, attributes and opportunities that any society considers appropriate for men and women, boys and girls” and people with non-binary identities. 2 As Raewyn Connell laid out more than two decades ago, existing systems typically distribute greater power, resources, and status to men and behaviors considered masculine . 3 As a result, gender intersects with other sources of disadvantage, most notably income, age, race, and ethnicity.

This understanding is now mainstream. As recently observed by the IMF, “The gender inequalities exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic follow different paths but almost always end up the same: Women have suffered disproportionate economic harm from the crisis.” 4 Among the important nuances revealed by micro-surveys is that rural women working informally continued to work through the pandemic , but with sharply reduced earnings in Nigeria and elsewhere. 5 And as the burden of child care and home schooling soared, rural households headed by women were far less likely than urban households to have children engaged in learning activities during school closures.

Important insights emerge from IFPRI’s longitudinal panel study (which included Ghana, Kenya, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda) covering income loss, coping strategies, labor and time use, food and water insecurity, and child education outcomes. 6

Among the especially adverse impacts for women were greater food and water insecurity compared to men, including worrying about insufficient food and eating less than usual, while a large proportion of women also did not have adequately diverse diets. Moreover, many women had to add hours to their workday caring for sick family members, and their economic opportunities shrank, cutting their earnings and widening gender income gaps.

While today’s problems seem daunting, there remain huge causes for optimism, especially in Africa. Over the past three decades, many African countries have achieved enormous gains in levels of education, health, and poverty reduction. Indeed, the pace of change has been staggering and commendable. As captured in the Women Peace and Security Index , which measures performance in inclusion, justice, and security, 6 of the top 10 score improvers during the period 2017-2021 were in sub-Saharan Africa. [GIWPS.2022. “Women Peace and Security Index” Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.] The Democratic Republic of Congo was among top score improvers since 2017, as the share of women with financial accounts almost tripled, to 24 percent; and increases exceeding 5 percentage points were registered in cell phone use and parliamentary representation. In the Central African Republic, improvements were experienced in the security dimension, where organized violence fell significantly, and women’s perceptions of community safety rose 6 percentage points up to 49 percent.

Looking ahead, efforts to mitigate gender inequalities must clearly be multi-pronged, and as highlighted above—we need to think outside silos. That said, two major policy fronts emerge to the fore.

Ensure cash transfers that protect against poverty , are built and designed to promote women’s opportunities, with a focus on digital payments. 7 Ways to address gender inequalities as part of social protection program responses 8 include deliberate efforts to overcome gender gaps in cell phone access by distributing phones to those women who need them, as well as private sector partnerships to subsidize airtime for the poorest, and to make key information services and apps freely available . 9 Programs could also make women the default recipient of cash transfer schemes, instead of the head of household. Furthermore, capacity-building initiatives can be built into program design to give women the skills and capabilities needed to successfully manage accounts and financial decisionmaking. 10

Reducing the risk of violence against women. Women who are not safe at home are denied the freedom from violence needed to pursue opportunities that should be afforded to all. In 2018, 10 of the 15 countries with the worst rates of intimate partner violence were in sub-Saharan Africa—in descending order of average intimate partner violence these were, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Ethiopia, Liberia, South Sudan, Djibouti, and Uganda.

“As the burden of child care and home schooling soared, rural households headed by women were far less likely than urban households to have children engaged in learning activities.”

Conflicts and crises multiply women’s risk of physical, emotional, and sexual violence . During the pandemic, risk factors like economic stress were compounded by service closures and stay-at-home orders, which increased exposure to potential perpetrators. 11 Several governments responded by strengthening existing help services , including police and justice, supporting hotlines, ensuring the provision of psychological support, and health sector responses. 12 Examples of good practice included an NGO in North-Eastern Nigeria, which equipped existing safe spaces with phone booths to enable survivors to contact caseworkers.

However, given the high levels of prevalence and often low levels of reporting, prevention of gender-based violence is key. Targeted programs with promising results in prevention include community dialogues and efforts to change harmful norms, safe spaces, as well as possibilities to reduce the risk of violence through cash plus social protection programs. These efforts should be accompanied by more systematic monitoring and evaluation to build evidence about what works in diverse settings.

Finally, but certainly not least, women should have space and voices in decisionmaking. This case was powerfully put by former President Sirleaf Johnson in her 2021 Foresight essay, which underlined that “ economic, political, institutional, and social barriers persist throughout the continent, limiting women’s abilities to reach high-level leadership positions .” 13 Persistent gender gaps in power and decision-making, not only limits innovative thinking and solutions, but also the consideration of more basic measures to avoid the worsening of gender inequalities. Overcoming these gaps in power and decision-making requires safeguarding legal protections and rights, investing in women and girls financially, and opening space for women in political parties so that women have the platforms to access high-level appointed and competitive positions across national, regional, and international institutions. 14

Strengthening fiscal policy for gender equality

Senior Fellow, Center for Sustainable Development, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

Research Analyst, Center for Sustainable Development, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

It is often said that women act as “shock absorbers” during times of crisis; this is even more so in the current context of climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic, and increased geopolitical conflict. These three global crises have simultaneously stretched women’s ability to earn income and intensified their unpaid work. Well-designed fiscal policy can help cushion the effects of these shocks and enable women and their households to recover more quickly.

Over 60 percent of employed women in Africa work in agriculture, including in small-scale food production; women are the primary sellers in food markets, and they work in other sectors such as informal trading. At the same time, women are an increasing share of entrepreneurs in countries such as Ghana and Uganda, even as they face financial and other constraints to start and grow their firms. [Africa Gender Innovation Lab (GIL). 2020. “Supporting Women Throughout the Coronavirus Emergency Response and Economic Recovery.” World Bank Group. ] In addition to earning income for their households, women bear the major responsibility for unpaid domestic activities such as cooking; collecting water and fuelwood; caring for children, elderly, and other dependents—so women are more time-poor than are men.

African women and entrepreneurs have been impacted disproportionately more than men by the triple shocks mentioned earlier. Extreme weather events disrupt food production and agricultural employment, making it harder for women to earn income . 15 16 17 The pandemic and conflict in Ukraine further intensified women’s paid and unpaid activities . 18 19 Beyond climate change and the war in Ukraine, localized conflicts and insecurity in East and West Africa exposes women and girls to gender-based violence and other risks as they seek to support their families and develop new coping strategies. 20 21 22

“Responding to these shocks necessitates a large infusion of resources. In this context, fiscal policy can be deployed more smartly to advance gender equality and create an enabling environment for women to play a greater role in building their economies’ recovery and resilience.”

Responding to these shocks necessitates a large infusion of resources. In this context, fiscal policy can be deployed more smartly to advance gender equality and create an enabling environment for women to play a greater role in building their economies’ recovery and resilience. Public expenditure supports critical sectors such as education, health, agriculture, social protection, and physical and social infrastructure, while well-designed tax policy is essential to fund the public goods, services, and infrastructure on which both women and men rely.

Gender-responsive budgets, which exist in over 30 countries across the continent, can be strengthened. Rwanda provides a good model for other countries. After an early unsuccessful attempt, Rwanda invested seriously in gender budgeting beginning in 2011. 23 24 The budget is focused on closing gaps and strengthening women’s roles in key sectors—agriculture, education, health, and infrastructure—which are all critical for short- and medium-term economic growth and productivity. The process has been sustained by strong political will among parliamentarians. Led by the Ministry of Finance, the process has financed and been complemented by important institutional and policy reforms. A constitutional regulatory body monitors results, with additional accountability by civil society organizations.

However, raising adequate fiscal revenue to support a gender budget is a challenge in the current macro environment of high public debt levels, increased borrowing costs, and low levels of public savings. Yet, observers note there is scope to increase revenues through taxation reforms, debt relief, cutting wasteful public expenditure, and other means. 25 26 We focus here on taxation.

Many countries are reforming their tax systems to strengthen revenue collection. Overall tax collection is currently low; the average tax-to-GDP ratio in Africa in 2020 was 14.8 percent and fell sharply during the pandemic, although it may be rebounding. 27 Very few Africans pay personal income tax or other central government taxes, 28 29 and statutory corporate tax rates (which range from 25-35 percent), are higher than even the recent OECD proposal for a global minimum tax 30 so scope for raising them further is limited. Efforts should be made to close loopholes and reduce tax evasion.

As countries reform their tax policies, they should be intentional about avoiding implicit and explicit gender biases. 31 32 33 34 Most African countries rely more on indirect taxes than direct taxes, given the structure of their economies, but indirect taxes can be regressive as their incidence falls primarily on the poor. Presumptive or turnover taxes, for example, which are uniform or fixed amounts of tax based on the “presumed” incomes of different occupations such as hairdressers, can hit women particularly hard, since the burden often falls heavily on sectors where women predominate. 35 36

Property taxes are also becoming an increasingly popular way to raise revenue for local governments. The impact of these efforts on male and female property owners has not been systematically evaluated, but a recent study of land use fees and agricultural income taxes in Ethiopia finds that female-headed and female adult-only households bear a larger tax burden than male-headed and dual-adult households of property taxes. This is likely a result of unequal land ownership patterns, gender norms restricting women’s engagement in agriculture, and the gender gap in agricultural productivity. 37

“Indirect taxes can be regressive as their incidence falls primarily on the poor. Presumptive or turnover taxes … can hit women particularly hard, since the burden often falls heavily on sectors where women predominate.”

Going forward, two key ingredients for gender budgeting on the continent need to be strengthened. The first is having sufficient, regularly collected, sex-disaggregated administrative data related to households, the labor force, and other survey data. Investment in the robust technical capacity for ministries and academia to be able to access, analyze, and use it is also necessary. For instance, the World Bank, UN Women, and the Economic Commission for Africa are all working with National Statistical Offices across the continent to strengthen statistical capacity in the areas of asset ownership and control, work and employment, and entrepreneurship which can be used in a gender budget.

The second ingredient is stronger diagnostic tools. One promising new tool, pioneered by Tulane University, is the Commitment to Equity methodology, designed to assess the impact of taxes and transfers on income inequality and poverty within countries. 38 It was recently extended to examine the impact of government transfers and taxes on women and men by income level and other dimensions. The methodology requires standard household-level data but for maximum effect should be supplemented with time use data, which are becoming more common in several African countries. As African countries seek to expand revenue from direct taxes, lessons from higher income economies are instructive. Although there is no one size fits all approach, key principles to keep in mind for designing personal income taxes include building in strong progressivity, taxing individuals as opposed to families, ensuring that the allocation of shared income (e.g., property or non-labor income) does not penalize women, and building in allowances for care of children and dependents. 39 As noted, corporate income taxes need to eliminate the many breaks, loopholes, and exemptions that currently exist, 40 and countries might consider experimenting with wealth taxes.

In terms of indirect taxes, most African countries do not have single-rate VAT systems and already have zero or reduced rates for basic necessities, including foodstuffs and other necessities. While it is important to minimize exempted sectors and products, estimates show that goods essential for women’s and children’s health (e.g., menstrual health products, diapers, cooking fuel) should be considered part of the basket of basic goods that have reduced or zero rates. 41 And while African governments are being advised to bring informal workers and entrepreneurs into the formal tax system, 42 it should be noted that this massive sector earns well below income tax thresholds and already pays multiple informal fees and levies, for instance in fees to market associations. 43 44

Lastly, leveraging data and digital technologies to improve tax administration (i.e., taxpayer registration, e-filing, and e-payment of taxes) may help minimize costs and processing time, and reduce the incidence of corruption and evasion.32 Digitalization can also be important for bringing more female taxpayers into the net, especially if digital systems are interoperable; for instance, digital taxpayer registries linked to national identification or to property registration at the local level. However, digitalization can be a double-edged sword if privacy and security concerns are not built-in from the outset. Women particularly may need targeted digital financial literacy and other measures to ensure their trust in the system. Recent shocks have worsened gender inequality in Africa. It is therefore important now, more than ever, to invest in strengthening fiscal systems to help women and men recover, withstand future shocks, and reduce gender inequalities. While fiscal policy is not the only tool, it is an important part of government action. To be effective and improve both budgeting and revenue collection, more and better data, new diagnostic tools, and digitalization will all be necessary.

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  • 2. WTO. 2022. “Gender and Health”. World Health Organization.
  • 3. Connell RW. 1995. “Masculinities”. Cambridge, UK. Polity Press.
  • 4. Aoyagi, Chie.2021.“Africa’s Unequal Pandemic”. Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund.
  • 5. WB.2022. “LSMS-Supported High-Frequency Phone Surveys”. World Bank.
  • 6. Muzna Alvi, Shweta Gupta, Prapti Barooah, Claudia Ringler, Elizabeth Bryan and Ruth Meinzen-Dick.2022.“Gendered Impacts of COVID-19: Insights from 7 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia”. International Food Policy Research Institute.
  • 7. Klugman, Jeni, Zimmerman, Jamie M., Maria A. May, and Elizabeth Kellison. 2020. “Digital Cash Transfers in the Time of COVID 19: Opportunities and Considerations for Women’s Inclusion and Empowerment”. World Bank Group.
  • 8. IFPRI.2020. “Why gender-sensitive social protection is critical to the COVID-19 response in low-and middle-income countries”. International Food Policy Research Institute.
  • 9. IDFR.2020. “Kenya: Mobile-money as a public-health tool”. International Day of Family Remittances.
  • 10. Jaclyn Berfond Franz Gómez S. Juan Navarrete Ryan Newton Ana Pantelic. 2019. “Capacity Building for Government-to-Person Payments A Path to Women’s Economic Empowerment”. Women’s World Banking.
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  • 12. UNDP/ UN Women Tracker.2022. “United Nations Development Programme. COVID-19 Global Gender Response Tracker”. United Nations Development Programme. New York.
  • 13. McKinsey Global Institute .2019. “The power of parity: Advancing women’s equality in Africa”.
  • 14. Foresight Africa. 2022. “African Women and Girls: Leading a continent.” The Brookings Institution.
  • 15. One recent study in West, Central Africa, East and Southern Africa found that women represented a larger share of agricultural employment in areas affected by heat waves and droughts, and a lower share in areas unaffected by extreme weather events. Nico, G. et al. 2022. “How Weather Variability and Extreme Shocks Affect Women’s Participation in African Agriculture.” Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative Policy Note 14.
  • 16. Carleton, E. 2022. “Climate Change in Africa: What Will It Mean for Agriculture and Food Security?” International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
  • 17. Nebie, E.K. et al. 2021. “Food Security and Climate Shocks in Senegal: Who and Where Are the Most Vulnerable Households?” Global Food Security, 29.
  • 18. Sen, A.K. 2022. “Russia’s War in Ukraine Is Taking a Toll on Africa.” United States Institute of Peace.
  • 19. Thomas, A. 2020. “Power Structures over Gender Make Women More Vulnerable to Climate Change.” Climate Change News.
  • 21. Kalbarczyk, A. et al. 2022. “COVID-19, Nutrition, and Gender: An Evidence-Informed Approach to Gender Responsive Policies and Programs.” Social Science & Medicine, 312.
  • 22. Epstein, A. 2020. “Drought and Intimate Partner Violence Towards Women in 19 Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa During 2011-2018: A Population-Based Study.” PLoS Med, 17(3).
  • 23. Stotsky, J. et al. 2016. “Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Gender Budgeting Efforts. IMF Working Paper 2016/512.
  • 24. Kadama, C. et al. 2018. Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Kolovich, L. (Ed.), Fiscal Policies and Gender Equality (pp. 9-32). International Monetary Fund (IMF).
  • 25. Ortiz, I. and Cummins, M. 2021. “Abandoning Austerity: Fiscal Policies for Inclusive Development.” In Gallagher, K. and Gao, H. (Eds.), Building Back a Better Global Financial Safety Net (pp. 11-22). Global Development Policy Center.
  • 26. Roy, R. et al. 2006. “Fiscal Space for Public Investment: Towards a Human Development Approach.”
  • 27. ATAF, 2021.
  • 28. Moore, M. et al. 2018. “Taxing Africa: Coercion, Reform and Development. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  • 29. Rogan, M. 2019. Tax Justice and the Informal Economy: A Review of the Debates.” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing Working Paper 14.
  • 30. African Tax Administrative Forum (ATAF). 2021. African Tax Outlook 2021.
  • 31. Stotsky, J. et al. 2016. “Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Gender Budgeting Efforts.” IMF Working Paper 2016/512.
  • 32. Coelho, M. et al. 2022. “Gendered Taxes: The Interaction of Tax Policy with Gender Equality.” IMF Working Paper 2022/26.
  • 33. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2021. Gender and Capital Budgeting.
  • 34. Grown, C. and Valodia, I. 2010. Taxation and Gender Equity: A Comparative Analysis of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Developing and Developed Countries. Routledge.
  • 35. Joshi, Anuradha et al. 2020. “Gender and Tax Policies in the Global South.” International Centre for Tax and Development.
  • 36. Komatsu, H. et al. 2021. “Gender and Tax Incidence of Rural Land Use Fee and Agricultural In¬come Tax in Ethiopia.” Policy Research Working Papers.
  • 38. Lustig, N. 2018. “Commitment to Equity Handbook: Estimating the Impact of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty.” Brookings Institution Press.
  • 39. Grown, C. and Valodia, I. 2010. “Taxation and Gender Equity: A Comparative Analysis of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Developing and Developed Countries.” Routledge.
  • 40. Cesar, C. et al. 2022. “Africa’s Pulse: An Analysis of Issues Shaping Africa’s Economic Future.” World Bank.
  • 41. Woolard, I. 2018. Recommendations on Zero Ratings in the Value-Added Tax System. Independent Panel of Experts for the Review of Zero Rating in South Africa.
  • 42. It is important to distinguish between firms and individuals that are large enough to pay taxes but do not (which include icebergs, e.g., which are registered and therefore partially visible to tax authorities but do not pay their full obligations) and ghosts, e.g., those which should register to pay but do not and there invisible to tax authorities) and firms and individuals that are small and potentially but not necessarily taxable such as street vendors and waste pickers. Rogan, M. (2019). “Tax Justice and the Informal Economy: A Review of the Debates.” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing Working Paper 14.
  • 44. Ligomeka, W. 2019. “Expensive to be a Female Trader: The Reality of Taxation of Flea Market Trad¬ers in Zimbabwe.” International Center for Tax and Development Working Paper 93.

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Introduction to Gender Equality

In a society, everyone has the right to lead his/her life accordingly without any discrimination. When this state is achieved where all individuals are considered to be equal irrespective of their caste, gender, colour, profession, and status, we call it equality. Equality can also be defined as the situation where every individual has the same rights and equal opportunity to grow and prosper. 

Every individual of society dreams for equal rights and access to resources available at their disposal, but there is a lot of discrimination. This discrimination can be due to cultural differences, geographical differences, the colour of the individual, social status and even gender. The most prevalent discrimination is gender inequality. It is not a localised issue and is limited to only certain spheres of life but is prevalent across the globe. Even in progressive societies and top organisations, we can see many examples of gender bias. 

Gender equality can only be achieved when both male and female individuals are treated similarly. But discrimination is a social menace that creates division. We stop being together and stand together to tackle our problems. This social stigma has been creeping into the underbelly of all of society for many centuries. This has also been witnessed in gender-based cases. Gender inequality is the thing of the past as both men and women are creating history in all segments together.

Gender Equality builds a Nation

In this century, women and men enjoy the same privileges. The perception is changing slowly but steadily. People are now becoming more aware of their rights and what they can do in a free society. It has been found that when women and men hold the same position and participate equally, society progresses exclusively and creates a landmark. When a community reaches gender equality, everyone enjoys the same privileges and gets similar scopes in education, health, occupation, and political aspect. Even in the family, when both male and female members are treated in the same way, it is the best place to grow, learn, and add great value.

A nation needs to value every gender equally to progress at the right place. A society attains better development in all aspects when both genders are entitled to similar opportunities. Equal rights in decision making, health, politics, infrastructure, profession, etc will surely advance our society to a new level. The social stigma of women staying inside the house has changed. Nowadays, girls are equally competing with boys in school. They are also creating landmark development in their respective profession. Women are now seeking economic independence before they get married. It gives them the confidence to stand against oppression and make better decisions for themselves.

The age-old social structure dictated that women need to stay inside the home taking care of all when men go out to earn bread and butter. This has been practised for ages when the world outside was not safe. Now that the time has changed and we have successfully made our environment quite safer, women can step forward, get educated, pursue their passion, bring economic balance in their families, and share the weight of a family with men. This, in a cumulative way, will also make a country’s economy progress faster and better.

Methods to measure Gender Equality

Gender equality can be measured and a country’s growth can be traced by using the following methods.

Gender Development Index (GDI) is a gender-based calculation done similar to the Human Development Index. 

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is a detailed calculation method of the percentage of female members in decision-making roles. 

Gender Equity Index (GEI) considers economic participation, education, and empowerment.

Global Gender Gap Index assesses the level of gender inequality present on the basis of four criteria: economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, political empowerment, health and survival .

According to the Gender Gap Index (GGI), India ranks 140 among 156 participating countries. This denotes that the performance of India has fallen from the previous years, denoting negative growth in terms of closing the gender gap. In the current environment where equality and equal opportunities are considered supreme, this makes India be at a significant disadvantage.

Roadblocks to Gender Equality  

Indian society is still wrecked by such stigmas that dictate that women are meant to manage the home and stay indoors. This is being done for ages, leading to neglect of women in areas like education, health, wealth, and socio-economic fields. 

In addition to that, the dowry system is further crippling society. This ill practice had led to numerous female feticides. It has created a notion that girls are a burden on a family, which is one of the primary reasons a girl child cannot continue her education. Even if they excel in education and become independent, most of them are forced to quit their job as their income is considered a backup source, which is not fair. New-age women are not only independent, but they are confident too. The only thing they demand from society is support, which we should provide them.  

Along with dowry, there is one more burning issue that has a profound impact on women's growth. It is prevalent in all kinds of society and is known as violence. Violence against women is present in one or another form in public and private spaces. Sometimes, violence is accompanied by other burning issues such as exploitation, harassment, and trafficking, making the world unsafe for women. We must take steps to stop this and ensure a safe and healthy place for women.  

Poverty is also one of the major roadblocks towards gender equality. It has led to other malpractices such as child marriage, sale of children, trafficking and child labour, to name a few. Providing equal job opportunities and upliftment of people below the poverty line can help bring some checks onto this.

Initiative Towards Gender Equality

Any kind of discrimination acts as a roadblock in any nation’s growth, and a nation can only prosper when all its citizens have equal rights. Most of the developed countries has comparatively less gender discrimination and provide equal opportunity to both genders. Even the Indian government is taking multiple initiatives to cut down gender discrimination. 

They have initiated a social campaign called “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana” to encourage the education of girl children. Besides this, the government runs multiple other schemes, such as the Women Helpline Scheme, UJJAWALA, National Mission for Empowerment of Women, etc., to generate awareness among the people. Moreover, as responsible citizens, it is our responsibility to spread knowledge on gender discrimination to create a beautiful world for wome n [1] [2] .

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FAQs on Gender Equality Essay

1. What Makes Women Unequal to Men?

The social stigmas and beliefs that have been running deeply in the veins of all families make women unequal to men. Women are considered to be a burden by many families and are not provided with the same rights men enjoy in society. We are ill-informed regarding women’s rights and tend to continue age-old practices. This is made worse with social menaces such as the dowry system, child labor, child marriage, etc. Women can gather knowledge, get educated, and compete with men. This is sometimes quite threatening to the false patriarchal society.

2. How can We Promote Gender Equality?

Education is the prime measure to be taken to make society free from such menaces. When we teach our new generation regarding the best social practices and gender equal rights, we can eradicate such menaces aptly. Our society is ill-informed regarding gender equality and rights. Many policies have been designed and implemented by the government. As our country holds the second position in terms of population, it is hard to tackle these gender-based problems. It can only be erased from the deepest point by using education as the prime weapon.

3. Why should Women be Equal to Men?

Women might not be similar to men in terms of physical strength and physiological traits. Both are differently built biologically but they have the same brain and organs to function. Women these days are creating milestones that are changing society. They have traveled to space, running companies, creating history, and making everyone proud. Women are showing their capabilities in every phase and hence, they should be equal to men in all aspects.

4. Mention a few initiatives started by the Indian Government to enable gender equality.

The Indian government has initiated a social campaign called “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana” to encourage girls’ education. Besides this, the government runs multiple other schemes, such as the  Women Helpline Scheme, UJJAWALA, National Mission for Empowerment of Women, etc., to generate awareness among the people.

response essay about gender equality

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Essay on Gender Equality

Gender equality refers to equal opportunities for both men and women. It is the state of having equal access to resources for everyone regardless of their sex. There is a huge disparity in the number of opportunities available for men and women. Gender equality is an important social issue which requires an adequate amount of attention from everybody.

Social issue topics like gender equality are often part of academic writing, most importantly essay writing. Students are given the task of writing an essay on gender equality, where their understanding of the topic and proficiency in English are measured. So, to help students with their essays on gender equality, we have listed down some essay samples. These essays on gender equality samples will provide you with creative ideas, that you can add to your essay topics.

Master the art of essay writing with our blog on How to Write an Essay in English .

Also Read: Essay on Women Empowerment: Samples & Useful Tips

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Sample essay on gender equality in 100 words, sample essay on gender equality in 200 words, sample essay on gender equality in 300 words, gender equality paragraph.

‘Gender equality is the cornerstone of a progressive society. It grants everyone the same rights and opportunities irrespective of gender. Gender discrimination continues to limit the potential of countless individuals all over the world. To overcome gender-based discrimination that limits the potential of an individual, society must recognize that every person, regardless of gender, possesses unique talents and abilities that deserve equal recognition and opportunities. In a world where diversity is celebrated, gender should be no exception. By overcoming gender bias we pave the way for a more inclusive, progressive, and harmonious world.’

Also Read:   Women’s Equality Day 2023: History, Theme, Significance

‘Gender equality is a fundamental human right that should be embraced by all. It goes beyond mere parity between men and women; it encompasses the elimination of stereotypes, biases, and discrimination that hinder anyone from realizing their full potential. Achieving gender equality is not just a moral imperative; it also benefits society as a whole. When women and men have equal opportunities in education, employment, and leadership roles, economies thrive, communities prosper, and peace prevails.

Gender equality extends beyond basic rights; it embodies the struggle for a world where gender ceases to be a determining factor in one’s opportunities or treatment. It’s a call to arms against harmful stereotypes and prejudices that persist in our societies. It’s about nurturing an environment where everyone, regardless of gender, can thrive, pursue their ambitions, and contribute their talents to the fullest.

The fight for gender equality is far from over. Unequal pay, underrepresentation of women in leadership roles, and gender-based violence are stark reminders of the challenges we face. We must dismantle these barriers, foster inclusivity, and promote diversity in all aspects of life.’

Also Read: What are Human Rights?

‘Gender equality is not just an abstract concept; it’s a critical aspect of human rights that affects individuals’ daily lives. Achieving gender equality necessitates systemic changes across society, politics, and the economy. It begins with recognizing that gender disparities are deeply rooted in our history, culture, and institutions, and it requires a concerted effort to uproot them.

To bridge the gender gap, we must first address the root causes of inequality. Stereotypes that dictate traditional gender roles must be challenged. Education plays a pivotal role in this endeavour, as it equips individuals with the knowledge and critical thinking skills to question existing norms. Moreover, it empowers women and men to make informed choices about their lives and careers.

One of the most urgent challenges is combatting gender-based violence. Millions of women and girls worldwide suffer from physical, sexual, or psychological violence simply because of their gender. Achieving gender equality means creating a world where no one lives in fear or faces violence due to their gender identity.

Gender equality encompasses not only equal rights but also equal opportunities, respect, and the freedom to express one’s identity without fear or prejudice. The fight for gender equality is a collective responsibility. It requires dismantling patriarchal norms and embracing diversity. It requires a shift in mindset, proactive policies, and unwavering commitment. When we embrace gender equality, we unlock the full potential of half the world’s population, creating a brighter, fairer future for all.

In conclusion, gender equality is not just a lofty ideal but an urgent necessity. It’s about reshaping our world into one where every individual, regardless of their gender, has the same rights and opportunities. Achieving gender equality requires a collective effort to change not only policies but also attitudes, cultures, and social norms.’

Ans. 1 One example of Gender equality is receiving equal pay for equivalent work, irrespective of one’s gender. It also involves ensuring that women do not face repercussions upon their return to work after taking maternity leave, for instance.

Ans. 2 India has supported Sustainable Development Goals and one of the sustainable goals is Gender Equality. India as a country believes in Gender Equality and longs for an impartial and unbiased society. The government of India has also taken many initiatives like Beti Padhao Beti Bachao.

Ans. 3. Gender discrimination is an obstruction in the path of development. Hence becomes one of the challenges to gender equality. With this, child marriage, domestic violence, and sexual abuse are some more challenges to gender equality.

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Defining Gender Equality: An Essay Exploring the Importance and Implications

Defining Gender Equality: An Essay Exploring the Importance and Implications

Much has been said and written about gender equality, and yet the topic remains relevant and urgent. In this essay, we will delve into the various aspects and implications of gender equality, dissecting its importance for both men and women in our society. It is a topic that demands our attention, as we strive for a world where everyone is treated with respect and given equal opportunities.

Gender equality is not a new concept; it has been a point of discussion for centuries. However, in recent years, it has gained momentum and taken a prominent place in public discourse. The #MeToo movement, for instance, has shed light on the abuse and harassment that women face in the workplace and beyond. It has brought attention to the inequality that exists between genders and the urgent need to address it.

One of the reasons why gender equality is so crucial is that it affects every aspect of our lives. From the workplace to the home, from social interactions to health benefits, gender equality plays a significant role in shaping our experiences. Bonnie O’Hagan, in her essay on “China’s Gender Parity Goals,” argues that achieving gender equality in China would not only have a positive effect on women’s lives but also on the country as a whole. She points out that there is a direct correlation between gender equality and economic growth.

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Gender equality, however, goes beyond just economic benefits. Natalia Phung, in her essay on “The Invisible Work of Women,” highlights the unseen work that women do in the household, such as childcare, cooking, and cleaning. This work is often taken for granted and undervalued, leading to a lack of recognition and respect for women’s contributions. Phung argues that if we want to achieve true gender equality, we need to acknowledge and value the unpaid labor that women perform.

Moreover, gender equality is not just about women; it is about achieving a balance and breaking down gender stereotypes that limit both men and women. Ryan Women, in her essay on “The Benefits of Gender Equality in Stem Careers,” asserts that by encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields, we can challenge the societal norms that dictate gender roles and expectations. This, in turn, will lead to a more inclusive and diverse workforce, benefiting everyone involved.

Understanding Gender Equality

Gender equality is not about putting women above men or vice versa – it’s about creating a society where everyone has equal opportunities, rights, and treatment, regardless of their gender. It’s about breaking down the socially-constructed barriers that limit individuals based on their gender and ensuring that everyone has the chance to reach their full potential.

One of the most visible examples of gender inequality is the pay gap between men and women. On average, women still earn less than men for doing the same job. For example, Ellie McCoy, a working mother, discovered that she was being paid $10,000 less than Adam O’Hagan, her male colleague, for performing the same work. This exemplifies the discrimination and disparity that too many women face in the workplace.

Moreover, gender equality is not just about women’s rights. It also involves advocating for men’s rights and challenging stereotypes that limit both genders. For instance, Mark Chu, a stay-at-home father, faced judgment and criticism for defying traditional gender roles and choosing to take care of his children while his wife pursued her career.

Gender equality is a global issue that affects every country, regardless of its social, cultural, or economic power. Even in developed countries like the United States, where progress has been made in terms of women’s rights, there is still work to be done. Essays, discussions, and advocacy are essential in raising awareness and pushing for change.

One aspect of gender inequality that often goes unnoticed is how it affects men. For example, in many countries, men are not entitled to any paid paternity leave. This not only perpetuates the notion that men should not be actively involved in their children’s lives but also places an unfair burden on women, who are expected to bear the brunt of childcare responsibilities.

Addressing gender equality requires the active participation of governments, organizations, and individuals. Policymakers need to enact legislation that promotes gender equality, and companies need to ensure equal pay and equal opportunities for their employees. In schools, gender equality should be included in the curriculum and discussed openly to promote understanding and acceptance.

Ultimately, the goal of gender equality is to create a world where individuals are not limited or defined by their gender. It’s about building systems and societies that value and respect the contributions of everyone, regardless of their gender. By advocating for gender equality, we can create a more just and equitable world for everyone.

The Importance of Gender Equality

One of the key benefits of gender equity is the positive impact it has on the economy. When women have equal access to education and employment opportunities, they contribute significantly to the economic growth of their country. Studies have shown that closing the gender wage gap and achieving gender parity in the workforce could result in substantial economic gains.

In addition to the economic benefits, gender equality is also essential for individual well-being. When individuals are treated equally, regardless of their gender, they have better access to healthcare and are more likely to stay healthy. They also have access to quality education, which helps them make informed choices and improves their overall quality of life.

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Furthermore, gender equality is crucial for promoting social justice and creating a just society. In many countries, women still face limited opportunities, discrimination, and violence. Achieving gender equality means giving women a voice and ensuring their rights are protected.

Gender equality also plays a significant role in the workplace. It is important to create a work environment that values diversity and provides equal opportunities for both men and women. When gender equality is present in the workplace, it leads to increased productivity, creativity, and innovation.

Another important aspect is that gender equality transcends national boundaries. It is a global issue that requires international cooperation and collaboration. By working together, different countries can share knowledge, experiences, and best practices to address the challenges associated with gender inequality.

Moreover, gender equality is not only about women’s rights; it is about creating a society where everyone’s rights are respected and valued. Men also face certain gender stereotypes and expectations that can limit their choices and opportunities. Gender equality promotes a more inclusive society where individuals can express their true selves without fear of judgment or discrimination.

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The Implications of Gender Equality

Gender equality entails the empowerment of both men and women, ensuring that all genders have equal opportunities and rights in society. Achieving gender equality has numerous implications for various aspects of life, including health, education, career opportunities, and social cohesion.

Firstly, promoting gender equality has significant implications for individuals’ health. Numerous studies have shown a positive correlation between gender equality and population health outcomes. In countries where gender equality is high, individuals, regardless of their gender, have better access to healthcare and experience improved health outcomes.

Gender equality also has implications for education, with research showing that gender parity in education is directly linked to increased economic growth and productivity. When girls and women have equal opportunities to receive education, they are more likely to enter higher-paying jobs and contribute to the economy. Moreover, gender equality in education leads to more informed and engaged citizens who are better equipped to participate in the democratic process.

The implications of gender equality are also evident in the workplace. Closing the gender pay gap is crucial for achieving equality, as it ensures that individuals are paid based on their skills and not influenced by their gender. Furthermore, promoting gender equality in the workplace fosters a more inclusive and diverse environment, which has been linked to increased productivity and innovation.

Gender equality also has broader implications for society as a whole. When all genders are treated with equal respect and opportunities, it creates a more socially harmonious and cohesive community. Gender equality can help dismantle harmful socially-constructed stereotypes and norms, promoting a more inclusive and accepting society for all individuals.

Furthermore, gender equality is essential for political representation and participation. When women and other marginalized genders have equal access to political systems, their interests and concerns are more likely to be represented. Gender equality in politics also has a powerful effect on policy-making, leading to more inclusive and equitable decisions.

Equality as our Goal, Access as our Right: A Photo Essay

The first photo in this essay depicts a march advocating for women’s rights. The image captures the determination and unity of individuals who believe in the equality of all genders. By participating in such demonstrations, people express their commitment to creating a society where everyone is afforded the same opportunities.

An alarming statistic is highlighted in the next image: the percentage wage gap between men and women. This data illustrates the significant disparity in earnings between genders, which is a clear indication of the inequality that persists in the workforce. It is important to address this inequality and strive towards closing the gap.

The following photo focuses on the concept of respect. It showcases individuals from diverse backgrounds, races, and genders engaging in meaningful discussions. Respect and open dialogues are essential for fostering understanding and equality within communities, as they provide spaces for individuals to share their experiences and perspectives.

A powerful image of a woman standing up against abuse is presented next. This photo serves as a reminder of the struggles that women face and the importance of combating all forms of gender-based violence. By raising awareness and promoting societal change, we can create safer environments for everyone.

The photo essay then highlights the accomplishments and successes of women in various fields. From scientists and artists to politicians and entrepreneurs, women have made significant contributions to society. By showcasing these achievements, the essay emphasizes the need to celebrate and support women in their pursuits, regardless of the domain they choose to excel in.

The next image portrays a female employee, inspiring and empowered in her career. It serves as a reminder that women have the right to pursue fulfilling professional lives and should not be confined to traditional gender roles. Equality in the workplace requires providing women with equal opportunities for career advancement and eliminating biases and discrimination.

The essay also touches on the topic of reproductive rights and the challenges women face in balancing their personal and professional lives. The photo of a pregnant woman signifies the need for policies and support systems that enable women to have children without sacrificing their careers. It emphasizes the importance of creating an inclusive and supportive environment within society.

To further emphasize the need for equality, the photo essay shows the discrimination faced by women in poverty-stricken areas. The image showcases women who are working tirelessly to make ends meet and the barriers they encounter in accessing basic resources and opportunities. It highlights the urgent need for policies and initiatives that empower these women and ensure they are not left behind.

Throughout the essay, each photo tells a story and captures different aspects of the fight for gender equality. Whether it is through advocating for women’s rights, closing the wage gap, empowering women in their careers, or addressing the challenges faced by marginalized groups, it is clear that achieving gender equality takes collective effort and commitment.

What is the definition of gender equality?

Gender equality refers to the equal treatment and rights of individuals regardless of their gender identity or expression. It means that all individuals, regardless of their gender, are entitled to the same opportunities, resources, and treatment in all aspects of life.

Why is gender equality important?

Gender equality is important because it ensures that all individuals have equal opportunities, rights, and access to resources, regardless of their gender. It promotes fairness, social justice, and contributes to a more inclusive and progressive society.

What are some of the implications of gender inequality?

Gender inequality has numerous implications. It restricts economic growth, limits educational opportunities, and perpetuates social and cultural stereotypes. It also contributes to violence, discrimination, and marginalization of individuals based on their gender.

What are some effective strategies to promote gender equality?

Effective strategies to promote gender equality include raising awareness through education and campaigns, establishing and enforcing laws and policies that protect gender rights, promoting women’s empowerment, and encouraging equal representation and participation of women in decision-making processes.

How can individuals contribute to promoting gender equality in their everyday lives?

Individuals can contribute to promoting gender equality by challenging and questioning gender stereotypes, treating others with respect and dignity regardless of their gender, promoting equal opportunities and fairness in their personal and professional lives, and supporting organizations and initiatives that work towards gender equality.

What is gender equality?

Gender equality refers to the equal treatment and rights of men and women, where they are not discriminated against or disadvantaged based on their gender. It aims to ensure that all individuals have equal opportunities, access to resources, and social and economic rights, regardless of their gender.

Alex Koliada, PhD

By Alex Koliada, PhD

Alex Koliada, PhD, is a well-known doctor. He is famous for studying aging, genetics, and other medical conditions. He works at the Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics. His scientific research has been published in the most reputable international magazines. Alex holds a BA in English and Comparative Literature from the University of Southern California , and a TEFL certification from The Boston Language Institute.

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Gender Equality

The unfinished business of our time.

Women and girls represent half of the world’s population and, therefore, also half of its potential. Gender equality, besides being a fundamental human right, is essential to achieve peaceful societies, with full human potential and sustainable development. Moreover, it has been shown that empowering women spurs productivity and economic growth.

Unfortunately, there is still a long way to go to achieve full equality of rights and opportunities between men and women, warns UN Women. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to end the multiple forms of gender violence and secure equal access to quality education and health, economic resources and participation in political life for both women and girls and men and boys. It is also essential to achieve equal opportunities in access to employment and to positions of leadership and decision-making at all levels.

Guterres highlights that gender equality is more important than ever if we are to create prosperous economies and a healthy planet. However, he admits that we face a critical challenge: an alarming $360 billion annual gender gap by 2030.

To revert this trend, he has identified five key areas that need joint action: Investing in women, ending poverty, implementing gender-responsive financing, shifting to a green economy and care society and supporting feminist change-makers.

The UN Secretary-General, Mr. António Guterres has stated that achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls is the unfinished business of our time, and the greatest human rights challenge in our world.

The United Nations and women

UN support for the rights of women began with the Organization's founding Charter. Among the purposes of the UN declared in  Article 1 of its Charter  is “ To achieve international co-operation … in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion .”

Within the UN’s first year, the Economic and Social Council established its  Commission on the Status of Women , as the principal global policy-making body dedicated exclusively to gender equality and advancement of women. Among its earliest accomplishments was ensuring gender neutral language in the draft  Universal Declaration of Human Rights .

Women's rights as a human right

Gender Equality was made part of international human rights law by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948. That milestone document in the history of human rights recognized that “ All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights ” and that “ everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, … birth or other status .”

As the international feminist movement began to gain momentum during the 1970s, the General Assembly declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and organized the first World Conference on Women, held in Mexico City. At the urging of the Conference, it subsequently declared the years 1976-1985 as the  UN Decade for Women , and established a Voluntary Fund for Decade.

In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) , which is often described as an International Bill of Rights for Women. In its 30 articles, the Convention explicitly defines discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination. The Convention targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations, and it is the first human rights treaty to affirm the reproductive rights of women.

Five years after the Mexico City conference, a Second World Conference on Women was held in Copenhagen in 1980. The resulting Programme of Action called for stronger national measures to ensure women's ownership and control of property, as well as improvements in women's rights with respect to inheritance, child custody and loss of nationality

Birth of Global Feminism

In 1985, the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, was held in Nairobi. It was convened at a time when the movement for gender equality had finally gained true global recognition, and 15,000 representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) participated in a parallel NGO Forum.

The event was described by many as “the birth of global feminism”. Realizing that the goals of the Mexico City Conference had not been adequately met, the 157 participating governments adopted the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies to the Year 2000. The document broke new ground by declaring all issues to be women’s issues.

Beijing Conference on Women

The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, went a step further than the Nairobi Conference. The  Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action  asserted women’s rights as human rights and committed to specific actions to ensure respect for those rights. 

Commission on the Status of Women

The  Commission on the Status of Women  (CSW) is the principal global intergovernmental body exclusively dedicated to the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women. The CSW is instrumental in promoting women’s rights, documenting the reality of women’s lives throughout the world, and shaping global standards on gender equality and the empowerment of women.

The Commission's priorities for the 2021-2024 period are:

  • Women’s full and effective participation and decision-making in public life, as well as the elimination of violence, for achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls.
  • Achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls in the context of climate change environmental and disaster risk reduction policies and programmes.
  • Innovation and technological change, and education in the digital age for achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls.
  • Accelerating the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls by addressing poverty and strengthening institutions and financing with a gender perspective.

An Organization for Women

On 2 July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously voted to create a single UN body tasked with accelerating progress in achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment. The new UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women – or  UN Women  – merged four of the world body’s agencies and offices: the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues, and the UN International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women.

UN Women focuses on four main areas: promoting women's leadership and political participation, empowering women economically, ending violence against women, and supporting women's full and equal participation in peace processes and security efforts.

Women and the Sustainable Development Goals

Equality and empowerment.

The United Nations is now focusing its global development work on the recently-developed 17  Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) . Women have a  critical role to play  in all of the SDGs, with many targets specifically recognizing women’s equality and empowerment as both the objective, and as part of the solution.

Goal 5 , to "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls" is known as the stand-alone gender goal, because it is dedicated to achieving these ends. Deep legal and legislative changes are needed to ensure women’s rights around the world. While a record 143 countries guaranteed equality between men and women in their Constitutions by 2014, another 52 had not taken this step. 

Stark  gender disparities  remain in economic and political realms. While there has been some progress over the decades, on average women in the labour market still earn 20 per cent less than men globally. As of 2024, only 26.8 per cent of all national parliamentarians were female, a slow rise from 11.3 per cent in 1995.

Eliminating Violence Against Women

The UN system continues to give particular attention to the issue of violence against women. The 1993 General Assembly  Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women  contained “a clear and comprehensive definition of violence against women [and] a clear statement of the rights to be applied to ensure the elimination of violence against women in all its forms”. It represented “a commitment by States in respect of their responsibilities, and a commitment by the international community at large to the elimination of violence against women”.

Violence against women is a pandemic affecting all countries, even those that have made laudable progress in other areas. Worldwide, 30 per cent of women have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence.

In September 2017, the European Union and the United Nations joined forces to launch the  Spotlight Initiative , a global, multi-year initiative that focuses on eliminating all forms of violence against women and girls.

The  International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women  is observed on 25 November.

International Women's Day and other observances

International Women’s Day  is observed annually on 8 March. International Women's Day first emerged from the activities of labour movements at the turn of the twentieth century in North America and across Europe. It is a day, observed by many countries around the world, on which women are recognized for their achievements without regard to divisions, whether national, ethnic, linguistic, cultural, economic or political.

Besides International Women’s Day and the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women, the UN observes other international days dedicated to raising awareness of different aspects of the struggle for gender equality and women empowerment. On February 6, the  International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation  is observed, February 11 is the  International Day of Women and Girls in Science , June 19 is the  International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict , June 23 is  International Widows' Day , October 11 is the  International Day of the Girl Child  and on October 15 the  International Day of Rural Women  is observed.

Gender-inclusive language

Gender Inclusive Language Guidelines

Given the key role that language plays in shaping cultural and social attitudes, using gender-inclusive language is a powerful way to promote gender equality and eradicate gender bias.

Being inclusive from a gender language perspective means speaking and writing in a way that does not discriminate against a particular sex, social gender or gender identity, and does not perpetuate gender stereotypes.

These  Guidelines  include recommendations and materials, created to help United Nations staff use gender-inclusive language in any type of communication — oral or written, formal or informal — and are a useful starting point for anyone.

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  • Volume 11, Issue 8
  • Response strategies for promoting gender equality in public health emergencies: a rapid scoping review
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  • http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7120-0075 Janina I Steinert 1 , 2 ,
  • Caterina Alacevich 3 ,
  • Bridget Steele 2 ,
  • Julie Hennegan 4 , 5 ,
  • Alexa R Yakubovich 6
  • 1 TUM Schoool of Governance , Technical University of Munich , München , Germany
  • 2 Department of Social Policy and Intervention , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
  • 3 Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
  • 4 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health Program , Burnet Institute , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
  • 5 Melbourne School of Population and Global Health , University of Melbourne , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
  • 6 MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, St Michael’s Hospital, Unity Health Toronto , University of Toronto , Toronto , Ontario , Canada
  • Correspondence to Dr Janina I Steinert; janina.steinert{at}tum.de

Objectives The COVID-19 pandemic threatens to widen existing gender inequities worldwide. A growing body of literature assesses the harmful consequences of public health emergencies (PHEs) for women and girls; however, evidence of what works to alleviate such impacts is limited. To inform viable mitigation strategies, we reviewed the evidence on gender-based interventions implemented in PHEs, including disease outbreaks and natural disasters.

Methods We conducted a rapid scoping review to identify eligible studies by systematically searching the databases MEDLINE, Global Health and Web of Science with the latest search update on 28 May 2021. We used the Sustainable Development Goals as a guiding framework to identify eligible outcomes of gender (in)equality.

Results Out of 13 920 records, 16 studies met our eligibility criteria. These included experimental (3), cohort (2), case–control (3) and cross-sectional (9) studies conducted in the context of natural disasters (earthquakes, droughts and storms) or epidemics (Zika, Ebola and COVID-19). Six studies were implemented in Asia, seven in North/Central America and three in Africa. Interventions included economic empowerment programmes (5); health promotion, largely focused on reproductive health (10); and a postearthquake resettlement programme (1). Included studies assessed gender-based outcomes in the domains of sexual and reproductive health, equal opportunities, access to economic resources, violence and health. There was a dearth of evidence for other outcome domains relevant to gender equity such as harmful practices, sanitation and hygiene practices, workplace discrimination and unpaid work. Economic empowerment interventions showed promise in promoting women’s and girls’ economic and educational opportunities as well as their sexual and reproductive health during PHEs. However, some programme beneficiaries may be at risk of experiencing unintended harms such as an increase in domestic violence. Focused reproductive health promotion may also be an effective strategy for supporting women’s sexual and reproductive health, although additional experimental evidence is needed.

Conclusions This study identified critical evidence gaps to guide future research on approaches to alleviating gender inequities during PHEs. We further highlight that interventions to promote gender equity in PHEs should take into account possible harmful side effects such as increased gender-based violence.

Review registration DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8HKFD.

  • public health
  • health economics
  • health policy

Data availability statement

All review material including data extraction sheets and search strings will be made available via https://osf.io/8hkfd/ Reviewer registration can also be found here: DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8HKFD No additional data available.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-048292

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Strengths and limitations of this study

This is the first review to assess interventions and programmes to prevent or mitigate the impact of public health emergencies on gender inequality worldwide.

This rapid scoping review points to important evidence gaps with regard to several Sustainable Development Goal indicators of gender inequality (eg, harmful practices, sanitation and hygiene, workplace discrimination and unpaid work).

We considered only published studies and are thus unable to present insights that may emerge from reviewing grey literature.

Our search was limited to research published in English, and findings published in other languages were therefore not synthesised.

While we present evidence on the uptake of, impact of and engagement with interventions, we cannot draw conclusions on why and how a programme may work or not.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in several million deaths worldwide and has caused devastating socioeconomic disruptions. 1 Emerging evidence shows that women and girls are likely to bear the brunt of the socioeconomic impacts of the pandemic and that COVID-19 has the potential to exacerbate existing gender inequalities. 2–4 In light of this concern, this rapid scoping review aimed to identify interventions and policy strategies that can advance gender-equitable outcomes in the context of public health emergencies (PHEs). Given that the COVID-19 pandemic is currently ongoing, we adopted a broad perspective by drawing on scientific evidence from previous PHEs, including disease outbreaks, epidemics, pandemics and natural disasters, along with evidence generated in response to the pandemic to date (28 May 2021). 5

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG5) aims to ‘achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls’. SDG5 defines gender (in)equality according to different domains, including violence against women, access to sexual and reproductive health, access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), educational and economic opportunities, exposure to harmful practices, as well as care and domestic work. A growing body of literature demonstrates the links between PHEs and gender inequities across these domains. First, existing studies point to a rise in violence against women and girls during PHEs. 3 6–8 Empirical research has documented a higher prevalence of physical and sexual violence against women during the Ebola crisis in Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gambia. 9–12 Recent studies suggest that women and children were exposed to an increased risk of family violence during the COVID-19 lockdown. 13–17 Plausible mechanisms include increased environmental and interpersonal stressors (eg, greater economic instability), the need to shelter in place with abusive partners or family members, and barriers in accessing services or social support. 18 19

Evidence from past PHEs has also highlighted detrimental impacts on women’s sexual and reproductive health, largely as a result of the diversion of scarce healthcare resources and personnel to the immediate emergency response. 20–22 These include excess rates of miscarriages during the 1918 influenza, 23 higher odds of pregnancy-related mortality during the SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) epidemics, 24 and excess maternal, neonatal and stillbirth deaths due to major cuts in antenatal care coverage. 21 The COVID-19 pandemic has caused major disruptions in the supply chains for modern contraceptives in some low-income countries, 25 which may elevate the risk of teenage pregnancies. Relatedly, during the Ebola crisis in West Africa, the rate of teenage pregnancies increased by 65%–75%. 26

Further, PHEs can disrupt WASH services including the failure of maintenance or supply systems, 27 and restrict access and availability of hygiene products such as soap and menstrual materials. Inadequate access to private, safe and clean WASH facilities can expose women to physical discomfort, shame and stigmatisation while menstruating, 28 and constrain disease prevention efforts altogether. 29 A lack of basic services can also mean that women have to travel long distances to fetch water, which increases women’s unpaid workload while reducing the time spent on education or income generation. 30

Particularly in low-resource settings, PHEs can thwart girls’ educational opportunities and make them more vulnerable to harmful practices such as child marriage. In Sierra Leone, for instance, the school enrolment rate of girls dropped by 16 percentage points post-Ebola. 31 School closures that were implemented to contain the spread of the coronavirus have affected more than 800 million girls to date. 32 There has been growing concern that this policy may ultimately widen gender gaps in education due to a higher load of household chores and caregiving work being assigned to girls, preventing them from studying. 32 In addition, as PHEs can put enormous economic strains on low-income households, marrying off a daughter to receive a bride-price can become a survival strategy for some families. For instance, Corno and colleagues found that in sub-Saharan Africa, girls aged 12–17 years had a significantly higher likelihood of getting married if their household was affected by a drought. 33

In addition, in high-income and low-income countries alike, women may face an increased informal care burden in the context of PHEs, either to look after family members who need daily assistance or who have fallen sick, 34 or to look after their children, 35 as was the case during the COVID-19 lockdowns. 4 Increased care responsibility can thwart women’s employment opportunities and amplify pre-existing biases in couples’ division of paid and unpaid work. 36 For instance, Sevilla and Smith found that during the first COVID-19 infection wave in the UK, mothers were taking a substantially larger share of the additional childcare hours per week compared with fathers. 37 In addition, International Labour Organization estimates suggest that during the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic, informal workers across the world were facing an average of 60% cut in their incomes. 38 Given that the informal sector employs disproportionally more women than men, 39 women have been particularly vulnerable to loss of livelihoods. 30

Lastly, the COVID-19 pandemic may disproportionately affect women’s health risks. Although epidemiological evidence suggests that the COVID-19 infection and death rates are higher among men (Williamson et al , 2020 40 ), women make up 70% of the global front-line health workforce and may thus face a higher risk of contracting the virus. 20 41–43

In light of this evidence, it is clear that PHEs—including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic—are not gender-neutral. 44 Applying a gender lens to interventions and policies implemented in the context of PHEs is therefore crucial. Despite the expansive literature on the detrimental effects of PHEs on women and girls, systematic evidence regarding which interventions can mitigate these impacts to date is scarce. To inform viable response strategies, we conducted a rapid scoping review of the existing evidence on the relationship between interventions implemented in past PHEs and gender equality goals. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive synthesis of the literature on the uptake, mechanisms and effects of PHE response programmes across the domains of gender equality.

A review protocol specifying the search strategy and eligibility criteria was published via the Open Science Foundation on 24 April 2020. 45 Our search and synthesis strategies were based on rapid review guidelines. 46

Search strategy

We searched for published studies describing interventions and policies implemented in the context of PHEs that aimed to reduce gender inequality. We selected major health and social science databases to reflect the cross-disciplinary nature of the topic. We searched MEDLINE, Global Health and Web of Science between 28 April and 7 May 2020 and updated the search on 28 May 2021. Search terms were in English and categorised according to the concepts of (1) PHEs (covering search terms for pandemics, epidemics and natural disaster); (2) outcomes related to gender (in)equality (covering search terms for the following SDG aspects: women’s and girls’ discrimination, violence, harmful practices, unpaid work, equal opportunities, economic participation, WASH and sexual and reproductive health); and (3) interventions (see online supplemental appendix 1 for our search strategy). We hand-searched references of identified literature reviews for additional eligible studies.

Supplemental material

Inclusion criteria.

Studies were eligible if they reported on a gender-based intervention, policy or response strategy that was implemented in the context of a PHE. We defined PHEs as situations in which an imminent threat of harm to public health necessitates immediate and non-routine action, including disease outbreaks, epidemics, pandemics (eg, SARS, Zika, Ebola, etc) or natural disasters (eg, earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, etc). 5 47 48 We excluded the HIV/AIDS pandemic, endemic diseases (eg, malaria) rather than rapid and acute emergencies, and human-made rather than exogeneous events (eg, the opioid crisis, humanitarian conflicts and terrorism), as we understood these to involve different mechanisms of impact and because we hypothesised that response strategies would need to be different. We also excluded vaccination and immunisation programmes as these interventions cannot be adequately transferred to the context of other PHEs. Lastly, we excluded programmes that were existing prior to pandemics and then continuously delivered throughout.

Our inclusion criteria required that studies reported on either gendered predictors of uptake of and engagement with (eg, use of and participation in) an active intervention or assessed associations between the intervention and outcomes related to gender (in)equality. To define these outcomes, we drew on the targets of the SDGs, specifically SDG5 on gender equality and other gender-relevant SDG targets (SDG3: health; SDG4: education; SDG6: WASH) (see box 1 for our outcomes framework).

This rapid scoping review excluded qualitative studies but did not apply any other restrictions with regard to the research design, considering that it might be unethical or unfeasible to conduct a randomised controlled trial during a PHE. No restrictions were made in terms of geographical setting of the intervention, participants’ age or publication date.

Gender equality outcome framework (authors’ elaboration)

Discrimination of women and girls (eg, legal frameworks to promote non-discrimination and enacted/perceived gender attitudes/norms) (SDG 5.1).

Violence against women and girls (eg, psychological, physical and sexual violence by an intimate partner or other person) (SDG 5.2).

Harmful practices (eg, forced marriage and child marriage) (SDG 5.3).

Recognition of unpaid domestic work and shared responsibility of domestic burdens (SDG 5.4).

Equal opportunities in political, economic and public life (eg, girls’ school enrolment rates and share of women in political/economic leadership roles) (SDG 5.5 and SDG 4.5).

Women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health (eg, incidence of teenage pregnancies and use of modern contraceptives) (SDG 5.6 and SDG3.7).

Maternal health (SDG 3.1).

Equal rights to economic resources (eg, proportion of women in formal employment and access to financial services) (SDG 5.a).

Women’s and girls’ access to information and communication technologies (SDG 5.b).

Access to water, sanitation and hygiene for women and girls’ specific health needs (eg, women’s access to menstrual health and hygiene resources, etc) (SDG 6.2).

Study screening and data extraction

After removing duplicates, we screened titles and abstracts. We first independently piloted our screening criteria on 200 records. Once we established 100% consistency in our decisions, we divided the remaining records among all authors. We followed a similar process for full-text screening: we independently piloted 10% of all potentially eligible studies to establish consistency, then we divided screening among four authors. We extracted data from included studies using a piloted Excel form, including (1) type and country of PHE, (2) description of the intervention, (3) target population and sample size, (4) research design and (5) gender-related outcomes.

Data synthesis

We graphically synthesised data by categorising studies according to intervention type and mapped these against our gender inequality outcomes framework. We synthesised these data across three aspects of interventions, drawing on the Medical Research Council framework for evaluating complex interventions: (1) uptake and reach of the intervention; (2) implementation process of the intervention (eg, participant engagement and attendance); and (3) intervention effects. 49 We classified intervention results as positive (+) if estimates suggested that the intervention presented a positive association with gender equity outcomes; negative (−) if estimates suggested that the intervention presented a negative association; and neutral (0) if estimates were not conclusive (ie, a mix of positive, negative or null results). We made these determinations based on the direction and size of the point estimate and variability of the interval estimate, wherever available, as opposed to relying solely on statistical significance, in line with current best practice. 50 51 We critically appraised the quality of included studies according to the suitability of the research design for the research question, the representativeness of the sample, the quality of the measurement procedures, and the transparency and rigour of the applied statistical analyses.

Patient and public involvement

Patients (or in this case: emergency-affected populations) were not involved in the design or analysis stage of this study because we exclusively relied on secondary data from previously published articles. However, we intend to present results to relevant populations to involve them in the interpretation and dissemination of our research finding, as well as involve them in designing questions to ask in future studies.

Included studies

The database search returned 13 920 unique articles after deduplication (see figure 1 ). We excluded 13 546 studies after screening titles and abstracts. After screening 374 full texts, we excluded 353 because they reported on ineligible interventions (61%), were qualitative (22%), were not implemented in the context of a PHE (7%), did not include gender-related outcomes (7%), could not be retrieved in full text (2%) or were currently ongoing (1%). Twenty papers met the inclusion criteria, of which 4 reported on the same intervention, thus resulting in 16 stand-alone studies.

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Review flowchart.

Characteristics of included studies

Geographical setting and PHE

Table 1 and figure 2 present an overview of the 16 included studies. Included studies were published between 2005 and 2021. The majority of interventions were implemented in low-income and middle-income countries, namely, in Ethiopia (2), India (2), Iran (1), Sierra Leone (1), Bangladesh (1), Nepal (1) and Turkey (1). Five interventions were implemented in the USA and three were implemented in Puerto Rico. Eight studies were implemented in the context of natural disasters, including storms (2), flooding (2), droughts (2) and earthquakes (2). The remaining studies reported on interventions carried out in the context of epidemics or a pandemic, namely, Ebola (1), Zika (3) and COVID-19 (4). Sample sizes varied considerably between studies, ranging from 96 pregnant women in the context of COVID-19 52 to evaluations using administrative data for 29 221 women who received a reproductive health training programme in response to the Zika epidemic. 53–55

Geographical scope and intervention types of included studies.

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Intervention types

The included studies covered interventions that can be broadly categorised into three types (see figures 2 and 3 ): (1) economic empowerment, (2) health promotion and (3) postdisaster resettlement. Five studies assessed economic empowerment interventions : three studies reported on microfinance interventions and financial aid (one cross-sectional, one case–control and one experimental study), 56–58 and one cross-sectional study evaluated uptake of a food aid programme implemented in response to several major droughts in Ethiopia. 59 The fifth study, a randomised controlled trial conducted by Bandiera et al , assessed the impact of a multicomponent intervention for young women and girls (aged 12–25 years) in the context of Ebola, featuring training on financial literacy and vocational skills, access to microfinance and other non-economic programme components. 31

Summary of intervention effects by outcome type. SDG, Sustainable Development Goal.

The second broad intervention category was health promotion programmes , assessed in 10 studies. The majority of these programmes were focused on promoting women’s reproductive health. One cross-sectional study described the New Orleans Healthy Start programme that was implemented shortly after Hurricane Katrina and aimed to improve prenatal care for pregnant women in communities with high infant mortality rates. 60 Another case–control study reported on a community-based health promotion intervention to expand access to healthcare for Nepalese mothers that were severely affected by the 2015 earthquake. 61 Three cross-sectional studies reported on Zika-focused interventions, including (1) reproductive health training and counselling, 53–55 62 (2) training of healthcare providers to increase the quality of contraceptive service provision, 53–55 and (3) building of community awareness through a mass media campaign and distribution of Zika prevention kits. 63 64 Two cross-sectional studies, one cohort study and one randomised controlled trial presented virtual or telehealth health interventions that were implemented in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. 52 65–67 All but one of these were focused on reproductive health. One health promotion intervention evaluated a psychosocial care programme for female survivors of the tsunami in India in a case–control design. 68

One case–control study reported on a unique intervention that fell in neither of the aforementioned two categories: a postdisaster resettlement programme implemented in response to the Manjil earthquake in Iran, which involved the relocation and integration of some hard-hit villages to nearby locations. 69

Gender equality outcomes

Figure 3 displays the different outcome measures that were captured by included studies (see also table 1 for detailed information from each study). The figure highlights important gaps: several outcome domains remain fully unaddressed in the context of PHEs, including: (1) harmful practices such as child marriage, (2) WASH management, (3) unpaid work, (4) women’s social discrimination and (5) women’s access to information technology. It is further noteworthy that most assessed interventions (with the exception of Bandiera et al 31 ) targeted only one gender equality domain.

The majority of included studies evaluated outcomes related to sexual and reproductive health: (1) (teenage) pregnancy; (2) access to and use of modern contraceptives; (3) sexual risk behaviours (eg, unprotected, age-disparate sex and transactional sex); (4) access to and satisfaction with prenatal care; (5) prenatal distress and pregnancy anxiety; (6) reproductive healthcare counselling; and (7) menstrual disorders.

Four studies assessed aspects of health equity, including sex-disaggregated malnutrition indicators and receipt of food aid, 70 women’s psychological distress, 68 women’s use of telehealth services 65 and women’s adoption of preventative health behaviours. 63 Two studies reported on dimensions of equal opportunities, specifically capturing girls’ school enrolment, their numeracy and literacy levels, and the engagement of school-aged girls in income-generation activities (which can hamper their educational achievements), 31 as well as women’s civic and political engagement. 71 Lastly, two studies assessed interventions on women’s access to economic resources, specifically food aid membership uptake, 59 female employment, 69 and girls’ financial literacy and entrepreneurial confidence, 31 and two studies focused on gender-based violence. 31 58

Programme uptake, implementation and results

Economic empowerment.

The identified economic empowerment interventions sought to promote gender equality in five outcome domains: (1) gender-based violence, (2) equal opportunities, (3) reproductive health, (4) access to economic resources and (5) health equity (see figure 3 ).

Azadi and colleagues assessed the uptake of a food aid programme among 479 residents in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, using a case–control design. 59 The authors reported higher membership rates among women, with 55% of female respondents receiving food aid compared with 46% of male respondents. However, it remains unclear whether the differences in uptake were due to higher programme uptake among women or due to a higher baseline level of food insecurity among women. Because the study did not specify membership criteria or how households and individuals were sampled, the estimated uptake may be due to selection bias rather than true membership differences between men and women. The study did not examine food security or wider aspects of women’s economic well-being.

The ‘Empowerment and Livelihood for Adolescents’ (ELA) intervention implemented in Sierra Leone was successful in alleviating some of the negative impacts that the Ebola crisis had on girls’ equal opportunities: in randomly assigned treatment villages, 8% of girls (aged 12–25 years) had dropped out of school, compared with 16% in control villages. Likewise, literacy and numeracy levels were higher for girls in treatment villages. 31 Further, the rate of girls engaged in child labour in the aftermath of the Ebola epidemic rose by 6% in treatment villages compared with 20% in control villages. The ELA intervention also generated beneficial impacts on reproductive health outcomes, including increases in girls’ condom use and a decrease in out-of-wedlock pregnancies. However, strikingly, the authors revealed harmful intervention effects on violence-related outcomes for the older age group. For the ELA intervention, the authors observed an increase in the prevalence of unwanted sex (by 5.3 percentage points) and transactional sex (by 5.4 percentage points) among women aged 18–25 years in villages that experienced high disruption due to the Ebola crisis, compared with women in control villages. 31

Christian and colleagues assessed, in a natural experiment, whether the Odisha Rural Livelihoods Programme, consisting of self-help microcredit networks, mitigated some of the devastating economic impacts of the cyclone in Bengal, India. The analysis revealed the programme had no impact on households’ food expenditures but may have partly cushioned some of the cyclone’s negative effects on household expenditures. Specifically, women who participated in the self-help groups experienced smaller reductions in expenditures on women’s and children’s goods. Postcyclone civic and political engagement did not differ for women who were part of the microcredit network. 56

The microfinance programme in Ethiopia evaluated in a cross-sectional study by Doocy and colleagues showed improvements in health equity in the context of droughts. Specifically, the odds of acute malnourishment among women in control communities were three times as high (OR=3.2, 95% CI 1.1 to 9.8) compared with the odds of women who were established microfinance clients. The authors also note that the programme appeared to benefit female clients more than male clients. The likelihood that male clients had received food aid in the past year was twice as high relative to female clients, suggesting that the microfinance intervention substantially reduced women’s vulnerability to drought and food insecurity. 57

Lastly, Shahriar and Shepherd analysed uptake of a microcredit programme targeted at low-income women in Bangladesh using a case–control design. The authors surveyed women who were first-time loan recipients and found that, among all women, experiencing domestic violence was associated with lower odds of initiating a new business venture via reduced entrepreneurial self-efficacy and fear of business failure. The authors further found that the magnitude of these associations was larger for women who had recently experienced a PHE (flood, river bank erosion or cyclone in the last 12 months) compared with those who had not. The authors concluded therefore that the negative association between domestic violence and women’s entrepreneurial activities (ie, their usage of the microloan) was exacerbated by environmental disasters. However, it should be noted that the authors did not provide the results of a direct comparison of these differential associations (ie, the interaction effect), limiting inferences around the magnitude of the differences by PHE exposure. 58

Health promotion

Nine health promotion interventions that we identified were focused on the domain of sexual and reproductive health. A community engagement health promotion intervention in Nepal resulted in improvements in women’s maternal health knowledge and healthcare seeking behaviour based on a case–control evaluation. 61 For instance, the rate of institutional deliveries as well as antenatal care visits was higher among mothers sampled postintervention than in the group sampled before the intervention. 61 However, the analysis relied on two different samples at baseline and follow-up, whereby the latter sample had a higher proportion of mothers who scored better on a wealth index, which may have biased these comparisons.

Three cross-sectional studies assessed reproductive health outcomes in the context of the Zika epidemic. Earle-Richardson et al reported an assessment of four different interventions strategies to increase Zika prevention behaviours, including personal and home protection behaviours. 63 The study found mixed results for the interventions, which included a Zika orientation, the provision of prevention kits, a public awareness campaign and an offer of free residential mosquito spraying services. Personal protective behaviours including bed net, mosquito repellent and condom use were increased by exposure to interventions, while the offer of free spraying increased home or yard spraying but not other home protection behaviours. Exposure to the different interventions varied, with 93% of pregnant women surveyed reporting exposure to orientation, 75% to kit distribution, 51% to the awareness campaign and 68% to free residential spraying. The reproductive health training delivered to women with a recent live birth in Puerto Rico resulted in higher condom use during pregnancy among women who had received prenatal provider counselling for Zika virus infection prevention. 62 The Zika Contraception Access Network was successful in reaching large populations of women with modern contraceptive (long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC)) methods and social media health communication, securing a high level of user satisfaction and access to LARC removal. 53–55 Reach of the Zika Contraception Access Network was highest if awareness and information messages were delivered via Facebook. 64

The ‘New Orleans Healthy Start’ prenatal care programme, delivered after Hurricane Katrina, showed evidence of successful implementation: a greater proportion of pregnant women who engaged in the programme reported learning about each of the 11 components of prenatal care (eg, smoking) compared with those who accessed traditional prenatal care. 60 These two groups of women did not differ in their reported satisfaction of their prenatal care (eg, regarding waiting time). Women who engaged in the Healthy Start programme were, in general, a higher-risk group, including reporting worse hurricane experiences and more post-traumatic stress. Giarratano et al did not find evidence of an effect of the Healthy Start programme on a variety of prenatal or postnatal outcomes, from birth weight to gestational diabetes. This was interpreted as a programmatic success, given the higher risk among Healthy Start mothers; however, the study was designed to identify programme benefits, not non-inferiority. 60

One case–control study evaluated a psychosocial intervention that was targeted at female survivors of the tsunami disaster in India. 68 In affected communities, trained community workers delivered group sessions to female survivors who were encouraged to share their experiences and learn relaxation exercises. The intervention was associated with significant reductions in symptoms of psychological distress. Specifically, women who participated in the programme had 25% lower scores on the Impact of Event Scale compared with women who had not participated.

Four interventions consisted of telehealth or e-health approaches that were implemented and scaled up in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. One telehealth intervention was delivered to patients in a department of otolaryngology–head and neck surgery in Detroit, USA. Using a cohort study design, the authors found that female patients were more likely than male patients to take up virtual visits (OR=1.71, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.63). 65 Another telehealth intervention was focused on prenatal care and targeted 96 pregnant women in Turkey, reporting significant drops in prenatal distress (p=0.008) and pregnancy-related anxiety (p<0.001) when comparing women who participated in the telehealth intervention with those in a control group. 52 Another cross-sectional study assessed uptake of and engagement with a virtual prenatal care programme among 253 pregnant women in the USA, finding that 77.5% of participants were generally satisfied with the virtual care visits; 64.8% perceived the virtual visits as equally safe as in-person visits; and 36.1% had purchased a blood pressure cuff to take their measures at home. 67 A final telehealth intervention was targeted at 331 adolescents in the USA and took a broader focus on diverse health topics. With regard to gender-relevant outcomes, the cross-sectional study revealed that in 22% of all scheduled visits, adolescents sought help and advice on contraception or menstrual disorders, and in 6% of visits, they sought advice on HIV treatment. 66

Resettlement

The case–control study by Badri and colleagues evaluated the outcomes of a planned resettlement programme that was implemented during the reconstruction period after the Manjil earthquake in Iran. 69 Drawing on data collected 11 years after the earthquake, the authors reveal that the resettlement policy hampered employment prospects of women who were hit by the earthquake and forced to relocate to another village. However, it needs to be cautioned that the authors present neither point estimates nor corresponding CI for female employment rates, which makes a more detailed quantitative comparison of women in host communities and women in resettled communities impossible.

Study designs and quality appraisal

Included studies varied substantially with regard to their research design and methodological approach to data analysis (see figure 4 ). Causal inference about the intervention was reliable only in three studies, two of which were set up as cluster randomised controlled trials 31 52 and one as a natural experiment, exploiting variation in the intensity with which communities were hit by a cyclone as well as the staggered roll-out of a microcredit intervention. 56 Five studies relied on cohort or case–control designs to partly control for systematic variation in exposure to the intervention of interest, 53 61 65 68 69 and eight studies relied on cross-sectional, uncontrolled designs. 54 55 57 59 60 63 66 67 In five studies, participants were recruited based on random sampling procedures. 31 56 58 62 63 Four studies relied on convenience sampling, 60 61 68 and three studies did not provide sufficient information on the sampling procedure. 57 59 69 Nine out of 16 studies provided detailed descriptions on the survey instruments and reported on using validation procedures to adapt the questionnaire to the local context and language, or used previously validated psychometric scales. 52 57–60 65–68 Conversely, in four studies, we judged outcome measures to be susceptible to measurement error, either due to an increased risk of social desirability bias for self-reported behaviours (eg, condom use) in a face-to-face interview, 31 recall bias (eg, time use) or failure to use (or report on using) validated or prepiloted scales. 61–63 There was also considerable heterogeneity between studies in terms of statistical rigour: three studies did not present the corresponding SDs, SEs or CIs to their effect estimates, and three studies presented only unadjusted outcome analyses. 53–55 59 69

Quality appraisal. ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; ANOVA, analysis of variance.

In this rapid scoping review, we sought to identify scientific evidence on strategies for promoting gender equality during PHEs. In view of the multidimensional detrimental impacts that PHEs can have on female empowerment and on women’s societal status, this rapid scoping review reveals important evidence gaps. Notably, none of our included studies examined interventions that targeted sanitation and hygiene management, harmful practices (eg, child marriage), workplace or other forms of discrimination, or unpaid (care) work. More research on how to promote gender equity in these domains during PHEs is urgently needed, especially in light of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and its devastating socioeconomic consequences worldwide. In addition, although the search string was set up to move beyond the gender binary, none of the identified studies specifically targeted gender diverse or sexual minority participants. Hence, there is a dearth of evidence on how to effectively protect LGBTQIA* populations in the context of PHEs.

The studies that we have identified in this rapid scoping review highlighted positive associations between these interventions and women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health, 31 53–55 61 educational opportunities, 31 economic welfare 31 and health equity in terms of (mal)nutrition. 57

Two intervention strategies showed promise with regard to promoting gender equality during and after PHEs. First, two evaluation studies 53–55 63 presented large-scale governmental efforts for promoting sexual and reproductive health in the context of the Zika pandemic in Puerto Rico. Such efforts could be scaled up to other countries and may also be highly relevant in the context of PHEs other than Zika. In view of the increasing rate of teenage pregnancies in the aftermath of previous PHEs, 32 ensuring uninterrupted access to modern contraceptives should be considered one of the key policy priorities. In response to lockdown orders, telehealth offers appear to be promising intervention strategies and have shown high levels of uptake and user satisfaction in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. 52 65–67 Previous studies have already pointed to the suitability of telehealth interventions for supporting maternal care and women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health outside of public health emergencies. 72 As these services are scaled up in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, it is crucial that these are gender-sensitive and that sex-segregated outcomes are included for monitoring and evaluation purposes. 73 Second, economic empowerment programmes may be a crucial strategy for securing women’s and girls’ livelihoods in emergency settings. The impact of such programmes can go beyond economic aspects and may also decrease the risk of harmful coping behaviours such as marrying off a young daughter to receive a bride-price, 33 selling productive assets 74 or engaging in risky sexual behaviour. 75 One of the most widely used and promising tools to cushion the economic shock induced by a PHE are unconditional cash transfers. A rigorous evidence base has already been established, suggesting that unconditional cash transfers, in general, can improve food security, cognitive and physical child development, and stipulate business activities and educational attainment. 76 77 It is important to note that the gendered impacts of PHEs can vary substantially between cultural, political and economic contexts, and thus between high-income and low-income countries. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has jeopardised gender equality worldwide and has also put a high burden on women in high-income countries that have successfully narrowed their gender gap in recent years. 4 Based on the evidence discussed in this rapid scoping review, there are important learnings to transport from low-income and middle-income to high-income countries. A first key lesson is the prioritisation of equitable access to services, including sexual and reproductive healthcare. 53–55 A second is the emphasis on women’s economic empowerment, which, in higher-income settings, may focus mostly on extended access to childcare services, uninterrupted income flows, and higher flexibility in working hours and project deadlines. 78 However, it needs to be cautioned that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach does not exist and that more research on how to protect women’s and girls’ integrity and rights in the context of PHEs in both high-income and low-income countries is urgently needed.

The lack of evidence demonstrated by this rapid scoping review likely reflects the associated risks and difficulties of conducting research and collecting data in PHE settings. Yet, our synthesis demonstrates that well-intended interventions may sometimes have unintended consequences and even induce harm. It is therefore essential that emergency mitigation efforts are accompanied by thorough monitoring and evaluation efforts and integrate feedback systems to stop or modify (unintended) harmful approaches and improve programme response. It is also important that rigorous monitoring and evaluation is applied to gender equality programmes delivered by different policy agents—including philanthropic organisations, larger international organisations as well as national governments—so as to better understand which actors can most effectively intervene, and at which level. Indeed, one of the identified interventions reported a significant increase in violence against women, at least for some programme beneficiaries, postintervention. 31 This corroborates previous evidence documenting that economic empowerment programmes may expose female beneficiaries to a higher risk of violence. 79 80 To this end, promising mitigation strategies in delivering economic strengthening programmes have included adding specific training and awareness raising on gender roles and stereotypes and engaging male spouses in these programme components. 79 81–83 Given the rarity of being able to exploit random variation in PHE settings, these efforts should include, wherever possible, measuring key confounders of the programme–outcome association (which can be determined in times of non-emergencies and based on existing literature) as well as using appropriate measurement procedures, including appropriately trained interviewers, safe and secure data collection and storage, and validated instruments. While causality is difficult to establish in the absence of experimental designs, rich qualitative data as well as mixed-methods analyses can help depict the channels through which a programme may induce improvements in gender equality outcomes.

A number of limitations are noteworthy. First, our search strategy was set up with English search terms only and non-English publications were excluded. Second, in light of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the immediate demand for evidence-based policy strategies, we prioritised rapid evidence generation over a more systematic search by focusing only on published studies. Therefore, it is possible that our rapid scoping review did not capture some eligible programmes that were available only in grey literature outlets. Third, while we categorise reported coefficients for any of the intervention–outcome association as positive (+), negative (−) and neutral (0), they should not be interpreted as causal. Thirteen out of 16 included studies were based on research designs that did not allow for causal inference on the intervention impacts. Lastly, we did not include qualitative data in this rapid scoping review in order to prioritise evidence with conclusions on intervention effectiveness. However, this is a valuable direction for future inquiry, to generate further insights into the mechanisms of change underlying effective programmes or into the facilitating and inhibiting factors that explain interventions’ successes and failures.

The current COVID-19 pandemic with its ‘triple hit to health, education and income’ is projected to severely slow down progress towards realising the SDGs by 2030. 84 The SDG5 for ‘gender equality’ is no exception, as emphasised by UN Secretary-General António Guterres: ‘Limited gains in gender equality and women’s rights made over the decades are in danger of being rolled back due to the COVID-19 pandemic’. 85 Findings from this rapid scoping review provide preliminary support for economic empowerment programmes and focused sexual and reproductive health to promote gender equality in the domains of sexual and reproductive health, 31 53–55 61 62 equal opportunities 31 and health equity. 68 70 However, this rapid scoping review also uncovers important evidence gaps across all outcome domains of gender equality, particularly with regard to the (1) prevention of harmful practices, (2) adequate WASH management, (3) women’s time use and care burden, (4) workplace and other discrimination, and (5) access to technologies and economic resources. Concerted monitoring and evaluation efforts in PHE settings are urgently needed to inform responsive and effective policy programmes.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not required.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for funding from the Joachim Herz Foundation, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

  • Data supplement 1

Twitter @jisteinert, @CateAlacevich

Contributors JIS, ARY, CA and JH conceptualised the study and developed the review protocol. BS ran the database searches. JIS drafted the first version of the manuscript and ARY, CA, BS and JH provided substantial revisions and feedback. All authors screened abstracts and titles, extracted and analysed the data with feedback from all authors, and read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding JS is supported by the Joachim Herz Foundation. BS is supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. AY is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (HSI-166388)

Map disclaimer The inclusion of any map (including the depiction of any boundaries therein), or of any geographical or locational reference, does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of BMJ concerning the legal status of any country, territory, jurisdiction or area or of its authorities. Any such expression remains solely that of the relevant source and is not endorsed by BMJ. Maps are provided without any warranty of any kind, either express or implied.

Competing interests None declared.

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The White House 1600 Pennsylvania Ave NW Washington, DC 20500

Fact Sheet: National Strategy on Gender Equity and   Equality

The Biden-Harris Administration issues first-ever national gender strategy to advance the full participation of all people – including women and girls – in the United States and around the world.

[Click here to read the Gender Strategy Report] President Biden and Vice President Harris believe that advancing gender equity and equality is fundamental to every individual’s economic security, safety, health, and ability to exercise their most basic rights.  It is also essential to economic growth and development, democracy and political stability, and the security of nations across the globe.  Ensuring that all people, regardless of gender, have the opportunity to realize their full potential is, therefore, both a moral and strategic imperative. Yet no country in the world has achieved gender equality—and we are at an inflection point.  The COVID-19 pandemic has fueled a health crisis, an economic crisis, and a caregiving crisis that have magnified the challenges that women and girls, especially women and girls of color, have long faced.  It has also exacerbated a “shadow pandemic” of gender-based violence in the United States and around the world.  These overlapping crises have underscored that, for far too long, the status quo has left too many behind. This moment demands that we build back better.  It requires that we acknowledge and address longstanding gender discrimination and the systemic barriers to full participation that have held back women and girls.  And it requires that we bring the talent and potential of all people to bear to face the challenges of our time.  That’s why the Biden-Harris Administration established the White House Gender Policy Council, charged with leading the development of the first-ever National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality, which sets forth an aspirational vision and a comprehensive agenda to advance gender equity and equality in domestic and foreign policy—and demonstrates that families, communities, and nations around the world stand to benefit.

The strategy identifies ten interconnected priorities: 1) economic security; 2) gender-based violence; 3) health; 4) education; 5) justice and immigration; 6) human rights and equality under the law; 7) security and humanitarian relief; 8) climate change; 9) science and technology; and 10) democracy, participation, and leadership.  These priorities are inherently linked and must be tackled in concert. The strategy also adopts an intersectional approach that considers the barriers and challenges faced by those who experience intersecting and compounding forms of discrimination and bias related to gender, race, and other factors, including sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, disability, age, and socioeconomic status.  This includes addressing discrimination and bias faced by Black, Latino, and Indigenous and Native American people, Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders, and other people of color.   Strategic priorities include:   Improving economic security. As we recover from the pandemic, we have the opportunity to build an economy that works for women and their families.  To build back better, we will:

  • Ensure that people have equal access to good jobs, including by addressing persistent gender discrimination and systemic barriers to full workforce participation. 
  • Invest in care infrastructure and care workers to help rebuild the economy and lower costs for working families. 
  • Dismantle the barriers to equal opportunity in education that undermine the ability to compete on a level playing field, recognizing that education affects future economy security.

Preventing and responding to gender-based violence.  Gender-based violence is endemic in homes, schools, workplaces, the military, communities, and online—and far too often a hallmark of conflict and humanitarian crises.  It exacts tremendous costs on the safety, health and economic security of survivors and their families.  To prevent and response to gender-based violence, we will:

  • Work to eliminate gender-based violence wherever it occurs by developing and strengthening national and global laws and policies, investing in comprehensive services for survivors, and increasing prevention efforts. 
  • Address sexual violence in conflict settings; the elevated risk of violence facing women human rights defenders, activists, and politicians; human trafficking both at home and abroad; and the crisis of missing and murdered Indigenous people. 
  • Promote the safety and fair treatment of all people in the justice and immigration systems.

Increasing access to health care.  Health care is a right—not a privilege.  All people deserve access to high-quality, affordable health care, regardless of their zip code, income, ethnicity, race, or any other factor.  To protect, improve, and expand access to health care, we will:

  • Build on the historic work of the Affordable Care Act and continue to expand and improve health care globally. 
  • Defend the constitutional right to safe and legal abortion in the United States, established in Roe v. Wade, and promote access to sexual and reproductive health and rights both at home and abroad. 
  • Address the pernicious effects of health inequity, including by addressing the maternal mortality crisis in the United States, which has a disproportionate impact on Black and Native American women, and by reducing maternal mortality and morbidity abroad.

Advancing democracy, rights and full participation.  Supporting women’s and girls’ full participation in social, economic, civic, and political life—and ensuring they are represented at the tables where decisions are made—is essential to progress in every other area and a precondition to advancing strong and sustainable democracies.  To advance democracy, rights, and full participation, we will:

  • Work to advance gender equity and equality in the law and ensure that rights on paper are fully implemented in practice.  
  • Work towards gender parity and diversity in leadership roles, including in peace processes, national security and defense, global health and humanitarian efforts, and in the private sector. 
  • Promote the leadership of women and girls in addressing the challenge of climate change and seek to close gender gaps in STEM fields so that women and girls can shape the workforce of the future. 

Realizing this bold vision is a government-wide responsibility that cuts across the work of the Biden-Harris Administration in both domestic and foreign affairs.  Implementing this strategy will require the leadership of every White House office and executive agency.  This strategy is not just words on paper; it is a roadmap to deliver results for the American people and our partners around the world. And it builds on the work the Biden-Harris Administration has already done to advance gender equity and equality at home and abroad.  Through the American Rescue Plan, we have provided immediate relief to women and families, fully vaccinating over two-thirds of eligible Americans, reopening schools, providing direct payments to individuals, investing in domestic violence and sexual assault prevention and services, and helping child care providers keep their doors open.  The American Rescue Plan also expanded the Child Tax Credit, distributing monthly payments to tens of millions of American families covering over 60 million children.  Building on the American Rescue Plan, the President’s Bipartisan Infrastructure Deal and Build Back Better Agenda are once-in-a-generation investments to support America’s working families to rebuild the economy and support women and families.  Among its many transformative investments, the budget framework calls for: cutting taxes for middle class families with children, investing in the care economy and the care workforce, and lowering health care costs.  To advance economic security for women and girls globally, we have established a Gender Equity and Equality Action Fund, which supports efforts to address the impact that COVID-19, climate change, conflict, and crisis have on the economic security of women and their families.  And we have restored America’s leadership on the rights of women and girls on the world stage. We have also taken action to prevent and respond to gender-based violence, including through the Independent Review Commission on Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment in the Military and by directing the Department of Education to review Title IX regulations, guidance, and policies to ensure students receive an education free from sexual violence.  We continue working with Congress on meaningful legislative action, including through championing the landmark Violence Against Women Act, which passed the House in March with bipartisan support, and signing into law the Amendments to the Victims of Crime Act. And we have committed to updating and strengthening our strategy to combat gender-based violence around the world. To advance women’s health around the world, the Biden-Harris Administration has revoked the Global Gag Rule and reinstated funding to the UNFPA.  In the United States, the Administration has called for historic investments to respond to the maternal mortality crisis.  The President also launched a whole-of-government effort to respond to the recent Texas law which blatantly violates women’s constitutional right to a safe and legal abortion under Roe v. Wade .  

To inform our ongoing and future efforts to advance gender equity and equality at home and abroad, the strategy calls for continued accountability, consultation, and engagement as we work towards our collective vision for gender equity and equality at home and abroad.  Its implementation will guide strategic planning and budgeting, policy and program development, measurement and data, and management and training.  We look forward to partnering with Congress, local, state, Tribal, and territorial governments, civil society, the private sector, foreign governments, and multilateral institutions to drive progress towards the objectives outlined in this strategy.  In doing so, we will advance economic growth, health and safety, and the security of our nation and the world.

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Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Social Inequality — Gender Inequality

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Essays on Gender Inequality

Gender inequality essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: unveiling gender inequality: root causes, impact, and paths to equality.

Thesis Statement: This essay delves into the multifaceted issue of gender inequality, examining its underlying causes, its pervasive impact on society, and the strategies and movements aimed at achieving gender equality and justice.

  • Introduction
  • Understanding Gender Inequality: Social Constructs, Stereotypes, and Bias
  • Economic Disparities: Gender Wage Gap, Occupational Segregation, and Glass Ceilings
  • Education and Empowerment: Gender Disparities in Access and Opportunities
  • Violence Against Women: Domestic Violence, Harassment, and Human Rights Violations
  • Global Perspectives: Gender Inequality in Different Cultural and Geographical Contexts
  • The Role of Advocacy: Movements, Legislation, and Progress Towards Equality
  • Conclusion: The Ongoing Struggle for Gender Equality

Essay Title 2: Intersectionality and Gender Inequality: Examining the Overlapping Forms of Discrimination

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the concept of intersectionality within the context of gender inequality, analyzing how overlapping factors such as race, class, sexuality, and disability intersect with gender to create unique experiences of discrimination and privilege.

  • Intersectionality Defined: Interplay of Identity, Power, and Discrimination
  • Race and Gender: The Experiences of Women of Color
  • Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty, Wealth, and Economic Disparities
  • Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: LGBTQ+ Issues and Discrimination
  • Disability and Gender: Challenges Faced by Disabled Women
  • Intersectionality in Action: Real-Life Examples and Case Studies
  • Empowerment and Solidarity: Intersectional Feminism and Social Change
  • Conclusion: Embracing Intersectionality in the Fight Against Gender Inequality

Essay Title 3: Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Women's Leadership and Gender Equality in the Corporate World

Thesis Statement: This essay focuses on women's leadership in the corporate world, examining the challenges and barriers they face in reaching leadership positions, the importance of diversity in leadership, and the potential for change in the business sphere.

  • The Gender Leadership Gap: Statistics and Trends in Corporate Leadership
  • Barriers to Women's Advancement: Stereotypes, Bias, and Family-Work Balance
  • The Business Case for Gender Diversity: Benefits to Companies and Economies
  • Women Breaking Barriers: Success Stories and Female Role Models in Business
  • Initiatives for Change: Corporate Policies, Mentorship Programs, and Gender Parity Goals
  • The Future of Women in Leadership: Prospects for Gender Equality in the Corporate World
  • Conclusion: Advancing Women's Leadership for a More Inclusive Future

Gender Hierarchies, Stereotypes, and The Fight for Equality

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The Issue of Gender Inequality in The Media in America

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The Influence of Social Norms on Gender Inequality

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Sexism and Gender Inequality in The Workplace in The Us

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response essay about gender equality

UN Women Strategic Plan 2022-2025

Five ways to build gender equality and sustainability

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Gender inequality and the climate crisis are two of the most urgent challenges of today. As we better understand and make the critical connections between gender, social equity and climate change, it’s time we take action towards solutions.

A woman in rural Guinea picks from a Moringa tree.

From increasing women’s representation in leadership and decision-making to redistributing care-work and productive resources, progress towards a gender equal and sustainable future starts with taking action today.

This International Women’s Day, 8 March, join us in calling for policy and social reforms that put gender equality and sustainability at the centre of progress, starting with these five key ways to drive change.

Empower women smallholders

Over the last few decades, 55 per cent of the improvement in food security in developing countries has been driven by programmes promoting women’s empowerment. The Food and Agriculture Organization projects that if women farmers had equal access to productive resources, their farm yields would increase by 20 to 30 per cent. This could provide enough food to keep 100 to 150 million people from going hungry, reducing global hunger by 12 to 17 per cent.

Increasing the productive capacity of women smallholders (small-scale farmers who manage agricultural areas up to 10 hectares, or roughly 25 acres) also helps to promote sustainable agricultural practices. 75 per cent of the world’s food comes from only 12 plants and 5 animal species , making the global food system extremely vulnerable to environmental shocks –– such as changing climate patterns and extreme weather events. Smallholders, who tend to rely on more diverse and climate-resilient crops, represent a sustainable alternative to our current model of agricultural production.

Invest in care

The global economy depends on the unpaid and underpaid care work primarily carried out by women . But despite its essential nature –– which we’ve seen more than ever during the COVID-19 pandemic –– this work is not valued in accordance with its worth. Rather, care work (much like the environment) is treated like a limitless commodity that can be used without cost or consequence.

Instead, governments should treat care work like a collective good, expanding its availability and providing adequate support to those who do it. This includes investing in the expansion of care services, as well as increasing support for unpaid caregivers There’s a role for the private sector as well, in supporting unpaid care work through paid family leave and flexible working arrangements. Investing in care work is not only an acknowledgement of its importance but is also a way to create jobs and foster economic growth without increasing carbon emissions. Care is an inherently sustainable economic sector: rather than consuming resources, it helps to sustain and strengthen human abilities. Curbing emissions will require us to rethink the way we produce and measure value –– moving from a depletion-based economic model to one based on regeneration –– and investing in care is a crucial step in this direction.

Support women's leadership

At both the national and the community level, women’s representation and leadership appear to drive better environmental outcomes. Countries with higher percentages of women in parliament tend to adopt stricter climate change policies , resulting in lower emissions. At the local level, women’s participation in managing natural resources leads to more equitable and inclusive resource governance and better conservation outcomes . And when community climate programmes fully include women, they tend to be more effective and efficient in their use of resources .

In general, women are more likely to consider their families and communities in decision-making processes –– which is crucial to producing the kind of holistic solutions that make for effective climate action. Indigenous women in particular possess unique knowledge about agriculture, conservation and natural resource management that make their voices indispensable in any decision-making processes.

Fund women's organizations

Strong civil society organizations are a critical counterbalance to powerful state and corporate actors . They bring the voices of those who best understand their own experiences and needs into decision-making processes and help to keep governments accountable to the people they are meant to serve –– both key to climate action that prioritizes the wellbeing of people and planet.

Government collaboration with women’s organizations can help ensure that climate policies meet the specific needs of women and girls, and that such policies are effectively implemented. In vulnerable communities, women’s organizations often act as an informal safety net, bridging gaps in government services and helping to provide emergency support. Empowering such community networks is a crucial way to build climate resilience at the local level.

Protect women's health

Evidence suggests that women will bear the brunt of climate-linked negative health outcomes. In general, women are more likely to die in disasters , due in part to their limited access to resources and services. Research also indicates that climate change will have negative sexual and reproductive health impacts: higher temperatures are increasing the spread of diseases like malaria, dengue fever and Zika virus, which are linked to negative pregnancy and birth outcomes, and extreme heat itself appears to increase the incidence of stillbirth. As with other crises and disasters, climate change also increases vulnerability to gender-based violence.

At the same time, climate disasters often pull resources away from women’s health services and services to support survivors of gender-based violence. As climate change worsens, it is critical that these services are strengthened and expanded to help keep women healthy and safe.

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Original research

Response strategies for promoting gender equality in public health emergencies: a rapid scoping review, janina i steinert.

1 TUM Schoool of Governance, Technical University of Munich, München, Germany

2 Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Caterina Alacevich

3 Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Bridget Steele

Julie hennegan.

4 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health Program, Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

5 Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Alexa R Yakubovich

6 MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, St Michael’s Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Associated Data

bmjopen-2020-048292supp001.pdf

All review material including data extraction sheets and search strings will be made available via https://osf.io/8hkfd/ Reviewer registration can also be found here: DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8HKFD No additional data available.

The COVID-19 pandemic threatens to widen existing gender inequities worldwide. A growing body of literature assesses the harmful consequences of public health emergencies (PHEs) for women and girls; however, evidence of what works to alleviate such impacts is limited. To inform viable mitigation strategies, we reviewed the evidence on gender-based interventions implemented in PHEs, including disease outbreaks and natural disasters.

We conducted a rapid scoping review to identify eligible studies by systematically searching the databases MEDLINE, Global Health and Web of Science with the latest search update on 28 May 2021. We used the Sustainable Development Goals as a guiding framework to identify eligible outcomes of gender (in)equality.

Out of 13 920 records, 16 studies met our eligibility criteria. These included experimental (3), cohort (2), case–control (3) and cross-sectional (9) studies conducted in the context of natural disasters (earthquakes, droughts and storms) or epidemics (Zika, Ebola and COVID-19). Six studies were implemented in Asia, seven in North/Central America and three in Africa. Interventions included economic empowerment programmes (5); health promotion, largely focused on reproductive health (10); and a postearthquake resettlement programme (1). Included studies assessed gender-based outcomes in the domains of sexual and reproductive health, equal opportunities, access to economic resources, violence and health. There was a dearth of evidence for other outcome domains relevant to gender equity such as harmful practices, sanitation and hygiene practices, workplace discrimination and unpaid work. Economic empowerment interventions showed promise in promoting women’s and girls’ economic and educational opportunities as well as their sexual and reproductive health during PHEs. However, some programme beneficiaries may be at risk of experiencing unintended harms such as an increase in domestic violence. Focused reproductive health promotion may also be an effective strategy for supporting women’s sexual and reproductive health, although additional experimental evidence is needed.

Conclusions

This study identified critical evidence gaps to guide future research on approaches to alleviating gender inequities during PHEs. We further highlight that interventions to promote gender equity in PHEs should take into account possible harmful side effects such as increased gender-based violence.

Review registration

DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/8HKFD.

Strengths and limitations of this study

  • This is the first review to assess interventions and programmes to prevent or mitigate the impact of public health emergencies on gender inequality worldwide.
  • This rapid scoping review points to important evidence gaps with regard to several Sustainable Development Goal indicators of gender inequality (eg, harmful practices, sanitation and hygiene, workplace discrimination and unpaid work).
  • We considered only published studies and are thus unable to present insights that may emerge from reviewing grey literature.
  • Our search was limited to research published in English, and findings published in other languages were therefore not synthesised.
  • While we present evidence on the uptake of, impact of and engagement with interventions, we cannot draw conclusions on why and how a programme may work or not.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in several million deaths worldwide and has caused devastating socioeconomic disruptions. 1 Emerging evidence shows that women and girls are likely to bear the brunt of the socioeconomic impacts of the pandemic and that COVID-19 has the potential to exacerbate existing gender inequalities. 2–4 In light of this concern, this rapid scoping review aimed to identify interventions and policy strategies that can advance gender-equitable outcomes in the context of public health emergencies (PHEs). Given that the COVID-19 pandemic is currently ongoing, we adopted a broad perspective by drawing on scientific evidence from previous PHEs, including disease outbreaks, epidemics, pandemics and natural disasters, along with evidence generated in response to the pandemic to date (28 May 2021). 5

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG5) aims to ‘achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls’. SDG5 defines gender (in)equality according to different domains, including violence against women, access to sexual and reproductive health, access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), educational and economic opportunities, exposure to harmful practices, as well as care and domestic work. A growing body of literature demonstrates the links between PHEs and gender inequities across these domains. First, existing studies point to a rise in violence against women and girls during PHEs. 3 6–8 Empirical research has documented a higher prevalence of physical and sexual violence against women during the Ebola crisis in Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gambia. 9–12 Recent studies suggest that women and children were exposed to an increased risk of family violence during the COVID-19 lockdown. 13–17 Plausible mechanisms include increased environmental and interpersonal stressors (eg, greater economic instability), the need to shelter in place with abusive partners or family members, and barriers in accessing services or social support. 18 19

Evidence from past PHEs has also highlighted detrimental impacts on women’s sexual and reproductive health, largely as a result of the diversion of scarce healthcare resources and personnel to the immediate emergency response. 20–22 These include excess rates of miscarriages during the 1918 influenza, 23 higher odds of pregnancy-related mortality during the SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) epidemics, 24 and excess maternal, neonatal and stillbirth deaths due to major cuts in antenatal care coverage. 21 The COVID-19 pandemic has caused major disruptions in the supply chains for modern contraceptives in some low-income countries, 25 which may elevate the risk of teenage pregnancies. Relatedly, during the Ebola crisis in West Africa, the rate of teenage pregnancies increased by 65%–75%. 26

Further, PHEs can disrupt WASH services including the failure of maintenance or supply systems, 27 and restrict access and availability of hygiene products such as soap and menstrual materials. Inadequate access to private, safe and clean WASH facilities can expose women to physical discomfort, shame and stigmatisation while menstruating, 28 and constrain disease prevention efforts altogether. 29 A lack of basic services can also mean that women have to travel long distances to fetch water, which increases women’s unpaid workload while reducing the time spent on education or income generation. 30

Particularly in low-resource settings, PHEs can thwart girls’ educational opportunities and make them more vulnerable to harmful practices such as child marriage. In Sierra Leone, for instance, the school enrolment rate of girls dropped by 16 percentage points post-Ebola. 31 School closures that were implemented to contain the spread of the coronavirus have affected more than 800 million girls to date. 32 There has been growing concern that this policy may ultimately widen gender gaps in education due to a higher load of household chores and caregiving work being assigned to girls, preventing them from studying. 32 In addition, as PHEs can put enormous economic strains on low-income households, marrying off a daughter to receive a bride-price can become a survival strategy for some families. For instance, Corno and colleagues found that in sub-Saharan Africa, girls aged 12–17 years had a significantly higher likelihood of getting married if their household was affected by a drought. 33

In addition, in high-income and low-income countries alike, women may face an increased informal care burden in the context of PHEs, either to look after family members who need daily assistance or who have fallen sick, 34 or to look after their children, 35 as was the case during the COVID-19 lockdowns. 4 Increased care responsibility can thwart women’s employment opportunities and amplify pre-existing biases in couples’ division of paid and unpaid work. 36 For instance, Sevilla and Smith found that during the first COVID-19 infection wave in the UK, mothers were taking a substantially larger share of the additional childcare hours per week compared with fathers. 37 In addition, International Labour Organization estimates suggest that during the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic, informal workers across the world were facing an average of 60% cut in their incomes. 38 Given that the informal sector employs disproportionally more women than men, 39 women have been particularly vulnerable to loss of livelihoods. 30

Lastly, the COVID-19 pandemic may disproportionately affect women’s health risks. Although epidemiological evidence suggests that the COVID-19 infection and death rates are higher among men (Williamson et al , 2020 40 ), women make up 70% of the global front-line health workforce and may thus face a higher risk of contracting the virus. 20 41–43

In light of this evidence, it is clear that PHEs—including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic—are not gender-neutral. 44 Applying a gender lens to interventions and policies implemented in the context of PHEs is therefore crucial. Despite the expansive literature on the detrimental effects of PHEs on women and girls, systematic evidence regarding which interventions can mitigate these impacts to date is scarce. To inform viable response strategies, we conducted a rapid scoping review of the existing evidence on the relationship between interventions implemented in past PHEs and gender equality goals. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive synthesis of the literature on the uptake, mechanisms and effects of PHE response programmes across the domains of gender equality.

A review protocol specifying the search strategy and eligibility criteria was published via the Open Science Foundation on 24 April 2020. 45 Our search and synthesis strategies were based on rapid review guidelines. 46

Search strategy

We searched for published studies describing interventions and policies implemented in the context of PHEs that aimed to reduce gender inequality. We selected major health and social science databases to reflect the cross-disciplinary nature of the topic. We searched MEDLINE, Global Health and Web of Science between 28 April and 7 May 2020 and updated the search on 28 May 2021. Search terms were in English and categorised according to the concepts of (1) PHEs (covering search terms for pandemics, epidemics and natural disaster); (2) outcomes related to gender (in)equality (covering search terms for the following SDG aspects: women’s and girls’ discrimination, violence, harmful practices, unpaid work, equal opportunities, economic participation, WASH and sexual and reproductive health); and (3) interventions (see online supplemental appendix 1 for our search strategy). We hand-searched references of identified literature reviews for additional eligible studies.

Supplementary data

Inclusion criteria.

Studies were eligible if they reported on a gender-based intervention, policy or response strategy that was implemented in the context of a PHE. We defined PHEs as situations in which an imminent threat of harm to public health necessitates immediate and non-routine action, including disease outbreaks, epidemics, pandemics (eg, SARS, Zika, Ebola, etc) or natural disasters (eg, earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, etc). 5 47 48 We excluded the HIV/AIDS pandemic, endemic diseases (eg, malaria) rather than rapid and acute emergencies, and human-made rather than exogeneous events (eg, the opioid crisis, humanitarian conflicts and terrorism), as we understood these to involve different mechanisms of impact and because we hypothesised that response strategies would need to be different. We also excluded vaccination and immunisation programmes as these interventions cannot be adequately transferred to the context of other PHEs. Lastly, we excluded programmes that were existing prior to pandemics and then continuously delivered throughout.

Our inclusion criteria required that studies reported on either gendered predictors of uptake of and engagement with (eg, use of and participation in) an active intervention or assessed associations between the intervention and outcomes related to gender (in)equality. To define these outcomes, we drew on the targets of the SDGs, specifically SDG5 on gender equality and other gender-relevant SDG targets (SDG3: health; SDG4: education; SDG6: WASH) (see box 1 for our outcomes framework).

Gender equality outcome framework (authors’ elaboration)

  • Discrimination of women and girls (eg, legal frameworks to promote non-discrimination and enacted/perceived gender attitudes/norms) (SDG 5.1).
  • Violence against women and girls (eg, psychological, physical and sexual violence by an intimate partner or other person) (SDG 5.2).
  • Harmful practices (eg, forced marriage and child marriage) (SDG 5.3).
  • Recognition of unpaid domestic work and shared responsibility of domestic burdens (SDG 5.4).
  • Equal opportunities in political, economic and public life (eg, girls’ school enrolment rates and share of women in political/economic leadership roles) (SDG 5.5 and SDG 4.5).
  • Women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health (eg, incidence of teenage pregnancies and use of modern contraceptives) (SDG 5.6 and SDG3.7).
  • Maternal health (SDG 3.1).
  • Equal rights to economic resources (eg, proportion of women in formal employment and access to financial services) (SDG 5.a).
  • Women’s and girls’ access to information and communication technologies (SDG 5.b).
  • Access to water, sanitation and hygiene for women and girls’ specific health needs (eg, women’s access to menstrual health and hygiene resources, etc) (SDG 6.2).

This rapid scoping review excluded qualitative studies but did not apply any other restrictions with regard to the research design, considering that it might be unethical or unfeasible to conduct a randomised controlled trial during a PHE. No restrictions were made in terms of geographical setting of the intervention, participants’ age or publication date.

Study screening and data extraction

After removing duplicates, we screened titles and abstracts. We first independently piloted our screening criteria on 200 records. Once we established 100% consistency in our decisions, we divided the remaining records among all authors. We followed a similar process for full-text screening: we independently piloted 10% of all potentially eligible studies to establish consistency, then we divided screening among four authors. We extracted data from included studies using a piloted Excel form, including (1) type and country of PHE, (2) description of the intervention, (3) target population and sample size, (4) research design and (5) gender-related outcomes.

Data synthesis

We graphically synthesised data by categorising studies according to intervention type and mapped these against our gender inequality outcomes framework. We synthesised these data across three aspects of interventions, drawing on the Medical Research Council framework for evaluating complex interventions: (1) uptake and reach of the intervention; (2) implementation process of the intervention (eg, participant engagement and attendance); and (3) intervention effects. 49 We classified intervention results as positive (+) if estimates suggested that the intervention presented a positive association with gender equity outcomes; negative (−) if estimates suggested that the intervention presented a negative association; and neutral (0) if estimates were not conclusive (ie, a mix of positive, negative or null results). We made these determinations based on the direction and size of the point estimate and variability of the interval estimate, wherever available, as opposed to relying solely on statistical significance, in line with current best practice. 50 51 We critically appraised the quality of included studies according to the suitability of the research design for the research question, the representativeness of the sample, the quality of the measurement procedures, and the transparency and rigour of the applied statistical analyses.

Patient and public involvement

Patients (or in this case: emergency-affected populations) were not involved in the design or analysis stage of this study because we exclusively relied on secondary data from previously published articles. However, we intend to present results to relevant populations to involve them in the interpretation and dissemination of our research finding, as well as involve them in designing questions to ask in future studies.

Included studies

The database search returned 13 920 unique articles after deduplication (see figure 1 ). We excluded 13 546 studies after screening titles and abstracts. After screening 374 full texts, we excluded 353 because they reported on ineligible interventions (61%), were qualitative (22%), were not implemented in the context of a PHE (7%), did not include gender-related outcomes (7%), could not be retrieved in full text (2%) or were currently ongoing (1%). Twenty papers met the inclusion criteria, of which 4 reported on the same intervention, thus resulting in 16 stand-alone studies.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is bmjopen-2020-048292f01.jpg

Review flowchart.

Characteristics of included studies

Geographical setting and PHE

Table 1 and figure 2 present an overview of the 16 included studies. Included studies were published between 2005 and 2021. The majority of interventions were implemented in low-income and middle-income countries, namely, in Ethiopia (2), India (2), Iran (1), Sierra Leone (1), Bangladesh (1), Nepal (1) and Turkey (1). Five interventions were implemented in the USA and three were implemented in Puerto Rico. Eight studies were implemented in the context of natural disasters, including storms (2), flooding (2), droughts (2) and earthquakes (2). The remaining studies reported on interventions carried out in the context of epidemics or a pandemic, namely, Ebola (1), Zika (3) and COVID-19 (4). Sample sizes varied considerably between studies, ranging from 96 pregnant women in the context of COVID-19 52 to evaluations using administrative data for 29 221 women who received a reproductive health training programme in response to the Zika epidemic. 53–55

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Object name is bmjopen-2020-048292f02.jpg

Geographical scope and intervention types of included studies.

*Studies report on the same intervention.

LARC, long-acting reversible contraceptive; PHE, public health emergency; RCT, randomised controlled trial.

Intervention types

The included studies covered interventions that can be broadly categorised into three types (see figures 2 and 3 ): (1) economic empowerment, (2) health promotion and (3) postdisaster resettlement. Five studies assessed economic empowerment interventions : three studies reported on microfinance interventions and financial aid (one cross-sectional, one case–control and one experimental study), 56–58 and one cross-sectional study evaluated uptake of a food aid programme implemented in response to several major droughts in Ethiopia. 59 The fifth study, a randomised controlled trial conducted by Bandiera et al , assessed the impact of a multicomponent intervention for young women and girls (aged 12–25 years) in the context of Ebola, featuring training on financial literacy and vocational skills, access to microfinance and other non-economic programme components. 31

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is bmjopen-2020-048292f03.jpg

Summary of intervention effects by outcome type. SDG, Sustainable Development Goal.

The second broad intervention category was health promotion programmes , assessed in 10 studies. The majority of these programmes were focused on promoting women’s reproductive health. One cross-sectional study described the New Orleans Healthy Start programme that was implemented shortly after Hurricane Katrina and aimed to improve prenatal care for pregnant women in communities with high infant mortality rates. 60 Another case–control study reported on a community-based health promotion intervention to expand access to healthcare for Nepalese mothers that were severely affected by the 2015 earthquake. 61 Three cross-sectional studies reported on Zika-focused interventions, including (1) reproductive health training and counselling, 53–55 62 (2) training of healthcare providers to increase the quality of contraceptive service provision, 53–55 and (3) building of community awareness through a mass media campaign and distribution of Zika prevention kits. 63 64 Two cross-sectional studies, one cohort study and one randomised controlled trial presented virtual or telehealth health interventions that were implemented in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. 52 65–67 All but one of these were focused on reproductive health. One health promotion intervention evaluated a psychosocial care programme for female survivors of the tsunami in India in a case–control design. 68

One case–control study reported on a unique intervention that fell in neither of the aforementioned two categories: a postdisaster resettlement programme implemented in response to the Manjil earthquake in Iran, which involved the relocation and integration of some hard-hit villages to nearby locations. 69

Gender equality outcomes

Figure 3 displays the different outcome measures that were captured by included studies (see also table 1 for detailed information from each study). The figure highlights important gaps: several outcome domains remain fully unaddressed in the context of PHEs, including: (1) harmful practices such as child marriage, (2) WASH management, (3) unpaid work, (4) women’s social discrimination and (5) women’s access to information technology. It is further noteworthy that most assessed interventions (with the exception of Bandiera et al 31 ) targeted only one gender equality domain.

The majority of included studies evaluated outcomes related to sexual and reproductive health: (1) (teenage) pregnancy; (2) access to and use of modern contraceptives; (3) sexual risk behaviours (eg, unprotected, age-disparate sex and transactional sex); (4) access to and satisfaction with prenatal care; (5) prenatal distress and pregnancy anxiety; (6) reproductive healthcare counselling; and (7) menstrual disorders.

Four studies assessed aspects of health equity, including sex-disaggregated malnutrition indicators and receipt of food aid, 70 women’s psychological distress, 68 women’s use of telehealth services 65 and women’s adoption of preventative health behaviours. 63 Two studies reported on dimensions of equal opportunities, specifically capturing girls’ school enrolment, their numeracy and literacy levels, and the engagement of school-aged girls in income-generation activities (which can hamper their educational achievements), 31 as well as women’s civic and political engagement. 71 Lastly, two studies assessed interventions on women’s access to economic resources, specifically food aid membership uptake, 59 female employment, 69 and girls’ financial literacy and entrepreneurial confidence, 31 and two studies focused on gender-based violence. 31 58

Programme uptake, implementation and results

Economic empowerment.

The identified economic empowerment interventions sought to promote gender equality in five outcome domains: (1) gender-based violence, (2) equal opportunities, (3) reproductive health, (4) access to economic resources and (5) health equity (see figure 3 ).

Azadi and colleagues assessed the uptake of a food aid programme among 479 residents in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, using a case–control design. 59 The authors reported higher membership rates among women, with 55% of female respondents receiving food aid compared with 46% of male respondents. However, it remains unclear whether the differences in uptake were due to higher programme uptake among women or due to a higher baseline level of food insecurity among women. Because the study did not specify membership criteria or how households and individuals were sampled, the estimated uptake may be due to selection bias rather than true membership differences between men and women. The study did not examine food security or wider aspects of women’s economic well-being.

The ‘Empowerment and Livelihood for Adolescents’ (ELA) intervention implemented in Sierra Leone was successful in alleviating some of the negative impacts that the Ebola crisis had on girls’ equal opportunities: in randomly assigned treatment villages, 8% of girls (aged 12–25 years) had dropped out of school, compared with 16% in control villages. Likewise, literacy and numeracy levels were higher for girls in treatment villages. 31 Further, the rate of girls engaged in child labour in the aftermath of the Ebola epidemic rose by 6% in treatment villages compared with 20% in control villages. The ELA intervention also generated beneficial impacts on reproductive health outcomes, including increases in girls’ condom use and a decrease in out-of-wedlock pregnancies. However, strikingly, the authors revealed harmful intervention effects on violence-related outcomes for the older age group. For the ELA intervention, the authors observed an increase in the prevalence of unwanted sex (by 5.3 percentage points) and transactional sex (by 5.4 percentage points) among women aged 18–25 years in villages that experienced high disruption due to the Ebola crisis, compared with women in control villages. 31

Christian and colleagues assessed, in a natural experiment, whether the Odisha Rural Livelihoods Programme, consisting of self-help microcredit networks, mitigated some of the devastating economic impacts of the cyclone in Bengal, India. The analysis revealed the programme had no impact on households’ food expenditures but may have partly cushioned some of the cyclone’s negative effects on household expenditures. Specifically, women who participated in the self-help groups experienced smaller reductions in expenditures on women’s and children’s goods. Postcyclone civic and political engagement did not differ for women who were part of the microcredit network. 56

The microfinance programme in Ethiopia evaluated in a cross-sectional study by Doocy and colleagues showed improvements in health equity in the context of droughts. Specifically, the odds of acute malnourishment among women in control communities were three times as high (OR=3.2, 95% CI 1.1 to 9.8) compared with the odds of women who were established microfinance clients. The authors also note that the programme appeared to benefit female clients more than male clients. The likelihood that male clients had received food aid in the past year was twice as high relative to female clients, suggesting that the microfinance intervention substantially reduced women’s vulnerability to drought and food insecurity. 57

Lastly, Shahriar and Shepherd analysed uptake of a microcredit programme targeted at low-income women in Bangladesh using a case–control design. The authors surveyed women who were first-time loan recipients and found that, among all women, experiencing domestic violence was associated with lower odds of initiating a new business venture via reduced entrepreneurial self-efficacy and fear of business failure. The authors further found that the magnitude of these associations was larger for women who had recently experienced a PHE (flood, river bank erosion or cyclone in the last 12 months) compared with those who had not. The authors concluded therefore that the negative association between domestic violence and women’s entrepreneurial activities (ie, their usage of the microloan) was exacerbated by environmental disasters. However, it should be noted that the authors did not provide the results of a direct comparison of these differential associations (ie, the interaction effect), limiting inferences around the magnitude of the differences by PHE exposure. 58

Health promotion

Nine health promotion interventions that we identified were focused on the domain of sexual and reproductive health. A community engagement health promotion intervention in Nepal resulted in improvements in women’s maternal health knowledge and healthcare seeking behaviour based on a case–control evaluation. 61 For instance, the rate of institutional deliveries as well as antenatal care visits was higher among mothers sampled postintervention than in the group sampled before the intervention. 61 However, the analysis relied on two different samples at baseline and follow-up, whereby the latter sample had a higher proportion of mothers who scored better on a wealth index, which may have biased these comparisons.

Three cross-sectional studies assessed reproductive health outcomes in the context of the Zika epidemic. Earle-Richardson et al reported an assessment of four different interventions strategies to increase Zika prevention behaviours, including personal and home protection behaviours. 63 The study found mixed results for the interventions, which included a Zika orientation, the provision of prevention kits, a public awareness campaign and an offer of free residential mosquito spraying services. Personal protective behaviours including bed net, mosquito repellent and condom use were increased by exposure to interventions, while the offer of free spraying increased home or yard spraying but not other home protection behaviours. Exposure to the different interventions varied, with 93% of pregnant women surveyed reporting exposure to orientation, 75% to kit distribution, 51% to the awareness campaign and 68% to free residential spraying. The reproductive health training delivered to women with a recent live birth in Puerto Rico resulted in higher condom use during pregnancy among women who had received prenatal provider counselling for Zika virus infection prevention. 62 The Zika Contraception Access Network was successful in reaching large populations of women with modern contraceptive (long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC)) methods and social media health communication, securing a high level of user satisfaction and access to LARC removal. 53–55 Reach of the Zika Contraception Access Network was highest if awareness and information messages were delivered via Facebook. 64

The ‘New Orleans Healthy Start’ prenatal care programme, delivered after Hurricane Katrina, showed evidence of successful implementation: a greater proportion of pregnant women who engaged in the programme reported learning about each of the 11 components of prenatal care (eg, smoking) compared with those who accessed traditional prenatal care. 60 These two groups of women did not differ in their reported satisfaction of their prenatal care (eg, regarding waiting time). Women who engaged in the Healthy Start programme were, in general, a higher-risk group, including reporting worse hurricane experiences and more post-traumatic stress. Giarratano et al did not find evidence of an effect of the Healthy Start programme on a variety of prenatal or postnatal outcomes, from birth weight to gestational diabetes. This was interpreted as a programmatic success, given the higher risk among Healthy Start mothers; however, the study was designed to identify programme benefits, not non-inferiority. 60

One case–control study evaluated a psychosocial intervention that was targeted at female survivors of the tsunami disaster in India. 68 In affected communities, trained community workers delivered group sessions to female survivors who were encouraged to share their experiences and learn relaxation exercises. The intervention was associated with significant reductions in symptoms of psychological distress. Specifically, women who participated in the programme had 25% lower scores on the Impact of Event Scale compared with women who had not participated.

Four interventions consisted of telehealth or e-health approaches that were implemented and scaled up in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. One telehealth intervention was delivered to patients in a department of otolaryngology–head and neck surgery in Detroit, USA. Using a cohort study design, the authors found that female patients were more likely than male patients to take up virtual visits (OR=1.71, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.63). 65 Another telehealth intervention was focused on prenatal care and targeted 96 pregnant women in Turkey, reporting significant drops in prenatal distress (p=0.008) and pregnancy-related anxiety (p<0.001) when comparing women who participated in the telehealth intervention with those in a control group. 52 Another cross-sectional study assessed uptake of and engagement with a virtual prenatal care programme among 253 pregnant women in the USA, finding that 77.5% of participants were generally satisfied with the virtual care visits; 64.8% perceived the virtual visits as equally safe as in-person visits; and 36.1% had purchased a blood pressure cuff to take their measures at home. 67 A final telehealth intervention was targeted at 331 adolescents in the USA and took a broader focus on diverse health topics. With regard to gender-relevant outcomes, the cross-sectional study revealed that in 22% of all scheduled visits, adolescents sought help and advice on contraception or menstrual disorders, and in 6% of visits, they sought advice on HIV treatment. 66

Resettlement

The case–control study by Badri and colleagues evaluated the outcomes of a planned resettlement programme that was implemented during the reconstruction period after the Manjil earthquake in Iran. 69 Drawing on data collected 11 years after the earthquake, the authors reveal that the resettlement policy hampered employment prospects of women who were hit by the earthquake and forced to relocate to another village. However, it needs to be cautioned that the authors present neither point estimates nor corresponding CI for female employment rates, which makes a more detailed quantitative comparison of women in host communities and women in resettled communities impossible.

Study designs and quality appraisal

Included studies varied substantially with regard to their research design and methodological approach to data analysis (see figure 4 ). Causal inference about the intervention was reliable only in three studies, two of which were set up as cluster randomised controlled trials 31 52 and one as a natural experiment, exploiting variation in the intensity with which communities were hit by a cyclone as well as the staggered roll-out of a microcredit intervention. 56 Five studies relied on cohort or case–control designs to partly control for systematic variation in exposure to the intervention of interest, 53 61 65 68 69 and eight studies relied on cross-sectional, uncontrolled designs. 54 55 57 59 60 63 66 67 In five studies, participants were recruited based on random sampling procedures. 31 56 58 62 63 Four studies relied on convenience sampling, 60 61 68 and three studies did not provide sufficient information on the sampling procedure. 57 59 69 Nine out of 16 studies provided detailed descriptions on the survey instruments and reported on using validation procedures to adapt the questionnaire to the local context and language, or used previously validated psychometric scales. 52 57–60 65–68 Conversely, in four studies, we judged outcome measures to be susceptible to measurement error, either due to an increased risk of social desirability bias for self-reported behaviours (eg, condom use) in a face-to-face interview, 31 recall bias (eg, time use) or failure to use (or report on using) validated or prepiloted scales. 61–63 There was also considerable heterogeneity between studies in terms of statistical rigour: three studies did not present the corresponding SDs, SEs or CIs to their effect estimates, and three studies presented only unadjusted outcome analyses. 53–55 59 69

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is bmjopen-2020-048292f04.jpg

Quality appraisal. ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; ANOVA, analysis of variance.

In this rapid scoping review, we sought to identify scientific evidence on strategies for promoting gender equality during PHEs. In view of the multidimensional detrimental impacts that PHEs can have on female empowerment and on women’s societal status, this rapid scoping review reveals important evidence gaps. Notably, none of our included studies examined interventions that targeted sanitation and hygiene management, harmful practices (eg, child marriage), workplace or other forms of discrimination, or unpaid (care) work. More research on how to promote gender equity in these domains during PHEs is urgently needed, especially in light of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and its devastating socioeconomic consequences worldwide. In addition, although the search string was set up to move beyond the gender binary, none of the identified studies specifically targeted gender diverse or sexual minority participants. Hence, there is a dearth of evidence on how to effectively protect LGBTQIA* populations in the context of PHEs.

The studies that we have identified in this rapid scoping review highlighted positive associations between these interventions and women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health, 31 53–55 61 educational opportunities, 31 economic welfare 31 and health equity in terms of (mal)nutrition. 57

Two intervention strategies showed promise with regard to promoting gender equality during and after PHEs. First, two evaluation studies 53–55 63 presented large-scale governmental efforts for promoting sexual and reproductive health in the context of the Zika pandemic in Puerto Rico. Such efforts could be scaled up to other countries and may also be highly relevant in the context of PHEs other than Zika. In view of the increasing rate of teenage pregnancies in the aftermath of previous PHEs, 32 ensuring uninterrupted access to modern contraceptives should be considered one of the key policy priorities. In response to lockdown orders, telehealth offers appear to be promising intervention strategies and have shown high levels of uptake and user satisfaction in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. 52 65–67 Previous studies have already pointed to the suitability of telehealth interventions for supporting maternal care and women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health outside of public health emergencies. 72 As these services are scaled up in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, it is crucial that these are gender-sensitive and that sex-segregated outcomes are included for monitoring and evaluation purposes. 73 Second, economic empowerment programmes may be a crucial strategy for securing women’s and girls’ livelihoods in emergency settings. The impact of such programmes can go beyond economic aspects and may also decrease the risk of harmful coping behaviours such as marrying off a young daughter to receive a bride-price, 33 selling productive assets 74 or engaging in risky sexual behaviour. 75 One of the most widely used and promising tools to cushion the economic shock induced by a PHE are unconditional cash transfers. A rigorous evidence base has already been established, suggesting that unconditional cash transfers, in general, can improve food security, cognitive and physical child development, and stipulate business activities and educational attainment. 76 77 It is important to note that the gendered impacts of PHEs can vary substantially between cultural, political and economic contexts, and thus between high-income and low-income countries. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has jeopardised gender equality worldwide and has also put a high burden on women in high-income countries that have successfully narrowed their gender gap in recent years. 4 Based on the evidence discussed in this rapid scoping review, there are important learnings to transport from low-income and middle-income to high-income countries. A first key lesson is the prioritisation of equitable access to services, including sexual and reproductive healthcare. 53–55 A second is the emphasis on women’s economic empowerment, which, in higher-income settings, may focus mostly on extended access to childcare services, uninterrupted income flows, and higher flexibility in working hours and project deadlines. 78 However, it needs to be cautioned that a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach does not exist and that more research on how to protect women’s and girls’ integrity and rights in the context of PHEs in both high-income and low-income countries is urgently needed.

The lack of evidence demonstrated by this rapid scoping review likely reflects the associated risks and difficulties of conducting research and collecting data in PHE settings. Yet, our synthesis demonstrates that well-intended interventions may sometimes have unintended consequences and even induce harm. It is therefore essential that emergency mitigation efforts are accompanied by thorough monitoring and evaluation efforts and integrate feedback systems to stop or modify (unintended) harmful approaches and improve programme response. It is also important that rigorous monitoring and evaluation is applied to gender equality programmes delivered by different policy agents—including philanthropic organisations, larger international organisations as well as national governments—so as to better understand which actors can most effectively intervene, and at which level. Indeed, one of the identified interventions reported a significant increase in violence against women, at least for some programme beneficiaries, postintervention. 31 This corroborates previous evidence documenting that economic empowerment programmes may expose female beneficiaries to a higher risk of violence. 79 80 To this end, promising mitigation strategies in delivering economic strengthening programmes have included adding specific training and awareness raising on gender roles and stereotypes and engaging male spouses in these programme components. 79 81–83 Given the rarity of being able to exploit random variation in PHE settings, these efforts should include, wherever possible, measuring key confounders of the programme–outcome association (which can be determined in times of non-emergencies and based on existing literature) as well as using appropriate measurement procedures, including appropriately trained interviewers, safe and secure data collection and storage, and validated instruments. While causality is difficult to establish in the absence of experimental designs, rich qualitative data as well as mixed-methods analyses can help depict the channels through which a programme may induce improvements in gender equality outcomes.

A number of limitations are noteworthy. First, our search strategy was set up with English search terms only and non-English publications were excluded. Second, in light of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the immediate demand for evidence-based policy strategies, we prioritised rapid evidence generation over a more systematic search by focusing only on published studies. Therefore, it is possible that our rapid scoping review did not capture some eligible programmes that were available only in grey literature outlets. Third, while we categorise reported coefficients for any of the intervention–outcome association as positive (+), negative (−) and neutral (0), they should not be interpreted as causal. Thirteen out of 16 included studies were based on research designs that did not allow for causal inference on the intervention impacts. Lastly, we did not include qualitative data in this rapid scoping review in order to prioritise evidence with conclusions on intervention effectiveness. However, this is a valuable direction for future inquiry, to generate further insights into the mechanisms of change underlying effective programmes or into the facilitating and inhibiting factors that explain interventions’ successes and failures.

The current COVID-19 pandemic with its ‘triple hit to health, education and income’ is projected to severely slow down progress towards realising the SDGs by 2030. 84 The SDG5 for ‘gender equality’ is no exception, as emphasised by UN Secretary-General António Guterres: ‘Limited gains in gender equality and women’s rights made over the decades are in danger of being rolled back due to the COVID-19 pandemic’. 85 Findings from this rapid scoping review provide preliminary support for economic empowerment programmes and focused sexual and reproductive health to promote gender equality in the domains of sexual and reproductive health, 31 53–55 61 62 equal opportunities 31 and health equity. 68 70 However, this rapid scoping review also uncovers important evidence gaps across all outcome domains of gender equality, particularly with regard to the (1) prevention of harmful practices, (2) adequate WASH management, (3) women’s time use and care burden, (4) workplace and other discrimination, and (5) access to technologies and economic resources. Concerted monitoring and evaluation efforts in PHE settings are urgently needed to inform responsive and effective policy programmes.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We are grateful for funding from the Joachim Herz Foundation, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Twitter: @jisteinert, @CateAlacevich

Contributors: JIS, ARY, CA and JH conceptualised the study and developed the review protocol. BS ran the database searches. JIS drafted the first version of the manuscript and ARY, CA, BS and JH provided substantial revisions and feedback. All authors screened abstracts and titles, extracted and analysed the data with feedback from all authors, and read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding: JS is supported by the Joachim Herz Foundation. BS is supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. AY is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (HSI-166388)

Map disclaimer: The inclusion of any map (including the depiction of any boundaries therein), or of any geographical or locational reference, does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of BMJ concerning the legal status of any country, territory, jurisdiction or area or of its authorities. Any such expression remains solely that of the relevant source and is not endorsed by BMJ. Maps are provided without any warranty of any kind, either express or implied.

Competing interests: None declared.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material: This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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Photo Essay: How gender-responsive budgeting is advancing gender equality in Albania

Date: 30 August 2018

In Albania, UN Women is working to make gender equality central to planning and budgeting for national development and EU integration. When it comes to applying gender-responsive budgeting in public finance, the country is recognized as a regional leader. With technical assistance from UN Women and financial support from the Austrian Development Agency, the State budget and spending is now responding equally to women and men’s needs in different areas.

Here are some examples of how Albanians have benefited from the implementation of gender-responsive budgeting by the central government in different sectors including; art and culture, agriculture, vocational training and employment, social housing, healthcare and social protection, and entrepreneurship and rehabilitation.    

Driada Dervishi

“If you provide the right opportunities for women and girls, they’ll put all their effort into bringing change,” says 37-year-old Driada Dervishi, a professional stage director. Ms. Dervishi and her colleagues revitalized the artistic life of Durrës, in the Adriatic coast, with funds received from the Ministry of Culture as a result of gender-responsive budgeting. In the city’s ancient amphitheater, she staged a nine-day summer festival with women artists and performers, attracting many tourists and visitors. 

anika and lijana

Anita Cake, 42, is a mother and wife living in a small south-eastern Albanian village. She has long experience in beekeeping and owns a small farm with vineyards, legume, nuts and more. A new subsidies scheme from the Ministry of Agriculture available for women entrepreneurs enabled her to overcome the high costs associated with beekeeping. “Subsidies have helped our business grow. We no longer struggle to find medicine, receive medical treatment and the working tools needed for beekeeping.” says Ms. Cake. Now the Cake family feel more optimistic. They plan a 20 per cent increase in production and revenue next year.  

Liljana Jaku, 38, has three children and a passion for family and work. But, the past 20 years as a beekeeper have been difficult. “We have often been close to bankruptcy. Being an informal business means a lack of State assistance. Now that we have formalized our business, we benefit from the agricultural schemes.” says Ms. Jaku. These subsidy schemes were put in place as a result of gender-responsive budgeting by the State and Ms. Jaku has now expanded her business. 

antonela and laura

18-year-old Antonela Sula is a young cook from Dibra working in a top gourmet restaurant in the capital, Tirana. She inherited a passion for cooking from her grandmother. “My dream job was to be a cook, but I didn’t know there were vocational schools for culinary until my friends told me about this program,” says Ms. Sula. She registered in a vocational training program and benefited from an employment scheme provided by the Ministry of Finance as a result of its gender-responsive budgeting program. Now she is among the youngest women to work alongside the country’s best chefs.

Laura Talo, 19, is a waitress from Tirana, working for a prestigious hotel in the city. She did an internship provided by the gender-responsive budgeting schemes of the government for vocational schools. “Choosing to study in a vocational school is a great investment for your future. Women and girls have a lot to offer in improving the quality of services in Albania,” says Ms. Talo.

Elvis Orhani

Elvis Orhani was an unemployed and homeless single parent from the Roma community in Tirana. Due to his economic situation, his son is being raised in an Italian orphanage. But, things started looking better when Mr. Orhani discovered that single parents can benefit from the social housing scheme. It is mandatory for Municipalities to dedicate one per cent of all social housing funds to ‘single parent families’. Mr. Orhani is now living and working at the National Emergency Transition Centre for the homeless in Tirana. And, he is waiting his turn to have a house. “Now that I have a job, my family feels more secure. Once I get a house, I will be able to reunite with my son,” says Mr. Orhani.

Ilmie Orhani

65-year-old Ilmie Orhani is a grandmother from the Roma community in Tirana. She lives with her son at the National Emergency Transition Centre for homeless people in Tirana. “I used to live in a barrack, but it got destroyed,” she says. When she came to the shelter, Ms. Orhani suffered poor health and lacked the documentation required to access the aged pension. “I was once very ill and pensionless. Thanks to the staff of the Centre, I received my pension and necessary medical treatment. Now I am well and I feel better,” says Ms. Orhani. Thanks to the successful implementation of the gender-responsive budgeting plans by the Ministry of Health and Social Protection, Ms. Orhani received the proper medical treatment and accessed her pension.

Fatmira Buzina Cima

Fatmira Buzina Cima is the co-owner and CEO of ‘Faberti Group’, a medicinal herb company certified by EU , hiring twelve women and buying local products from rural women. Through the Albanian Investment Development Agency fund for women in business, Ms. Buzina Cima got a $13,000 grant. This helped her to participate in an international Organic Product Fair in the United States. There, she connected with many companies, opening the door to international contracts worldwide. Ms. Buzina Cima is a feminist, with a passion for helping rural women. “I want to support women. This is what I call the ‘functioning chain’: meaning empowering me, means empowering other women,” she says.

Flutura Tolla

Flutura Tolla [1] , 33, is an inmate in Tirana Prison. An insecure living environment meant she had to drop her studies as a teenager. She now dreams about her new life after jail but is afraid of discrimination. “When I get out of here, I would love to have a new job, own a home and have my family. I hope the courses I took here in prison will help me,” says Ms. Tolla. The vocational courses for convicted women, a program provided by the State as a result of gender-responsive budgeting, have helped women and girls start a new life. 

[1] The name has been changed to protect the identity of the individual.

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    Gender Inequality Essay Topics and Outline Examples Essay Title 1: Unveiling Gender Inequality: Root Causes, Impact, and Paths to Equality. Thesis Statement: This essay delves into the multifaceted issue of gender inequality, examining its underlying causes, its pervasive impact on society, and the strategies and movements aimed at achieving gender equality and justice.

  21. Five ways to build gender equality and sustainability

    Five ways to build gender equality and sustainability. 28 February 2022. Gender inequality and the climate crisis are two of the most urgent challenges of today. As we better understand and make the critical connections between gender, social equity and climate change, it's time we take action towards solutions.

  22. Response strategies for promoting gender equality in public health

    To inform viable response strategies, we conducted a rapid scoping review of the existing evidence on the relationship between interventions implemented in past PHEs and gender equality goals. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive synthesis of the literature on the uptake, mechanisms and effects of PHE response programmes across the ...

  23. Photo Essay How gender-responsive budgeting

    Photo Essay: How gender-responsive budgeting is advancing gender equality in Albania. Date: 30 August 2018. In Albania, UN Women is working to make gender equality central to planning and budgeting for national development and EU integration. When it comes to applying gender-responsive budgeting in public finance, the country is recognized as a ...