sample data analysis essay

Data analysis section of a research paper

When writing a data analysis research paper or just a data analysis section of a research paper, most students face the issue of how to go about it. Data analysis is the most important part of research papers. The researcher summarizes the data collected during the research and provides statistical evidence that can be used to support the findings of the paper. Data analysis can be done in different ways, but most students choose to do it using Excel or SPSS.

There are many different ways to approach data analysis, but students should always start by carefully reviewing their data and making sure that it is accurate. Once the data has been verified, they can then begin to analyze it using the methods that they are most comfortable with.

In this guide, we will review the process of data analysis and how data analysis section of a research paper for college and graduate school students.

Discussion section of a research paper

Types of research papers, how to write a meta analysis research paper.

Research paper introduction paragraph

How to write preface for project report

Research Analysis Paper: How to Analyze a Research Article

What is data analysis?

Data analysis is the process of transforming data into information. This process involves the identification of patterns and trends in the data, as well as the formulation of hypotheses about the relationships between the variables.

The goal of data analysis is to understand the meaning of the data and to use this understanding to make decisions or predictions. Data analysis can be used to improve business processes, make better decisions, and understand the behavior of customers.

Data analysis in research is a process that can be divided into four steps:

Data Collection: The first step in data analysis is to collect data from a variety of sources. This data can be collected manually or through automated means.
Data Preparation: Once the data is collected, it must be prepared for analysis. This step involves cleaning the data and transforming it into a format that can be analyzed.
Data Analysis: The next step is to analyze the data. This step involves identifying patterns and trends in the data and formulating hypotheses about the relationships between the variables.
Data Interpretation: The final step is to interpret the data. This step involves using the results of the data analysis to make decisions or predictions.

There are a variety of software programs that can be used for data analysis. Some of the most popular programs are Excel, SPSS, and SAS. These programs allow you to perform a variety of data analysis operations, including:

Descriptive Statistics : This method involves the use of graphs and charts to summarize the data.
Correlation : This method is used to identify the relationships between variables.
Regression : This method is used to predict the value of a variable based on the values of other variables.
ANOVA : This method is used to compare the means of two or more variables.
Chi-square test : This method is used to test for relationships between categorical variables.
Tests of independence : This method is used to test for relationships between two or more variables.
Multivariate analysis : This method is used to analyze the relationship between multiple variables.

When performing data analysis, it is important to use the right tool for the job. Each tool has its strengths and weaknesses, so it is important to select the tool that will give you the best results.

What is the data analysis section of a research paper?

The data analysis section of a research paper is where the researcher presents their findings and interpret the data they have collected. This is usually done through statistical methods, but can also include qualitative data analysis. In this section, the researcher will present their results clearly and concisely, making sure to discuss any limitations to their study. They will also make connections between their findings and the existing body of research on the topic.

How to analyze data for a research paper

Here is how to write data analysis in a research paper or a data analysis report ::

1. Collect the data.

This can be done through surveys, interviews, observations, or secondary sources. Depending on the type of data you need to collect, there are a variety of methods you can use. You should also prepare the data for analysis. This step involves cleaning the data and transforming it into a format that can be analyzed.

2. Organize and enter the data into a statistical software program.

The next step is organizing the data, selecting the right statistical software, and entering the data into the program.

Some students prefer to use Excel to analyze their data, while others prefer to use SPSS. Both of these software programs have their strengths and weaknesses, so it is important to choose the one that is best suited for the type of data that you are working with.

Excel is a good choice for data analysis if you are familiar with it and feel comfortable using it. However, Excel has its limitations and can be difficult to use for complex data sets. If you are not familiar with Excel, or if you are working with a large data set, you may want to consider using SPSS instead.

SPSS is a statistical software program that is designed for more complex data analysis. It is not as user-friendly as Excel, but it is much better suited for analyzing large data sets.

Once you have chosen the software program that you will use for data analysis, you need to decide how you will go about analyzing the data. Many different statistical methods can be used for data analysis, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. You should choose the method that is best suited for the type of data that you are working with.

3. Analyze the data.

Once you have chosen the software program that you will use for data analysis, the method that you will use to analyze your data, and the type of data that you are working with, you are ready to begin your data analysis. Be sure to take your time and analyze the data carefully. The results of your data analysis will be used to support the findings of your research paper, so it is important to make sure that you do a thorough job.

After the data is entered into the software program, it is time to analyze it. This step involves identifying patterns and trends in the data and formulating hypotheses about the relationships between the variables.

It is important to note that data analysis is not a one-size-fits-all process. The methods used will vary depending on the type of data being analyzed. For quantitative data, the researcher may use descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, or regression analyses. For qualitative data, the researcher may use content analysis, thematic analysis, or narrative analysis.

4. Interpret the data.

After the data has been analyzed, it is time to interpret it. This step involves using the results of the data analysis to make decisions or predictions.

5. Present the data/results.

Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, it is time to present it in a research paper. This step involves writing a clear and concise paper that discusses the findings of the study. The paper should also discuss any limitations to the study and make connections between the findings and the existing body of research on the topic.

The data analysis section of a research paper is an important part of the paper. It is where the researcher presents their findings and interpret the data they have collected. This data analysis section of a research paper should be clear and concise, and it should discuss any limitations to the study. The researcher should also make connections between the findings and the existing body of research on the topic.

While the data analysis section of a research paper is important, it is also one of the most challenging sections to write. By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your data analysis section is clear, concise, and informative.

How to write data analysis in a research paper

The data analysis section of a research paper is where you present the results of your statistical analyses. This section can be divided into two parts: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

In the descriptive statistics section, you will describe the basic characteristics of the data. This includes the mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. You may also want to include a graph or table to visually represent the data.

In the inferential statistics section, you will interpret the results of your statistical analyses. This includes discussing whether or not the results are statistically significant. You will also discuss the implications of your results and how they contribute to our understanding of the research question.

What is a data analysis research paper?

A data analysis research paper is a type of scientific paper that is written to analyze data collected from a study. The purpose of this type of paper is to present the data in a clear and organized manner and to discuss any patterns or trends that were observed in the data. Data analysis papers can be used to inform future research projects, or to help policymakers make informed decisions.

When writing a data analysis research paper, it is important to be clear and concise in your writing. You should also make sure to include all of the relevant information, including the methods that were used to collect the data, as well as any statistics or graphs that were used to analyze it. It is also important to discuss any limitations of your data, as this can help to improve the quality of future studies. Finally, you should also provide a conclusion that summarizes your findings and discusses their implications.

When writing a data analysis research paper, it is important to:

Be clear and concise in your writing
Include all relevant information, including methods and statistics
Discuss any limitations of your data
Summarize your findings and discuss their implications

Example of data analysis in research paper

The following is an example of data analysis from a research paper on the effects of stress on academic performance.

Descriptive Statistics:

To describe the basic characteristics of the data, the mean, median, mode, and standard deviation were calculated. The results are shown in the table below.

As can be seen from the table, the mean and median scores were both 3. The mode was 2, which occurred twice as often as any other score. The standard deviation was 1.2.

Inferential Statistics:

To determine whether or not the results were statistically significant, a t-test was conducted. The results are shown in the table below.

As can be seen from the table, the results of the t-test were statistically significant, with a p-value of 0.05. This means that there is a significant difference between the stress levels of the two groups.

Conclusion:

The data from this study suggest that stress has a significant impact on academic performance. This finding has important implications for students, as well as for educators and policymakers.

Limitations:

There are a few limitations to this study that should be noted. First, the sample size was relatively small, which may have affected the results. Second, the data were self-reported, which means that they may not be accurate. Finally, this was a cross-sectional study, which means that cause and effect cannot be established.

Future Research:

This study provides a starting point for future research on the effects of stress on academic performance. Future studies should aim to replicate these findings with larger sample size. Additionally, longitudinal studies would be beneficial to establish causality. Finally, qualitative research could be used to explore the experiences of students who are struggling with stress.

Introduction to Data Analysis Handbook – ERIC
Structure of a Data Analysis Report – CMU Statistics
Learning to Do Qualitative Data Analysis: A Starting Point
Data Analysis Methods for Qualitative Research: Managing
Thematic analysis: a critical review of its process
Analysis in Research Papers | Collegewide Writing Center
Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers
A Quantitative Study of Teacher Perceptions of Professional
Analyzing Qualitative Data (G3658-12) – Delta State University
Thesis-Ch_1-3.pdf – IDEALS @ Illinois

Author: tutlance

How to write a research paper outline, examples, & template
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Data Analysis, Research Paper Example

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The overall statistical analysis techniques utilized within this study incorporated quantitative analyses using means and variable statistics. Demographic data was analyzed in three separate time periods during the course of this study. African American women were tested to examine changes in weight, glycemic control levels and insulin levels within the body. These changes in diabetes-related biological levels were analyzed prior to intervention, at the mid-way point of intervention and at the conclusion of the intervention techniques. A simple quantitative statistical analysis was utilized to examine simple changes in biological levels in cumulative averages. This multivariate quantitative analysis was found to be most useful to test the effectiveness of intervention strategies utilized throughout the study as these three variables are most likely to translate to an overall decrease in detrimental biological effects caused by diabetes (Miller, Marolen & Beech, 2010).

In order to maintain simplicity, the glycemic control levels and insulin levels are reported in Table 1.1 as an overall average “Decrease” or “Increase” in respective biological response levels. However, further analysis was conducted and utilized on an individualized basis to analyze each variable. Furthermore, each participant within this study was also graded at an overall achievement score based on researcher analysis to analyze the rate at which individuals exerted energy and during physical exercise (Franz, 2007). Quantitative statistics showed that there was a direct proportional response to high energy exertion to individualized weight loss and improvement in biological glycemic and insulin levels. This trend held true throughout each age group.

In relation to Table 1.1, results were tabulated to show the overall change in weight, glycemic control and insulin levels based on five unique age groups. Overall, there was a clear change in weight levels which is more effectively illustrated in Chart 2.1. It is important to note that every age range lost weight in the cumulative average testing; however, the under 25 age group and over 55 age group saw many key issues to be discussed later that altered overall statistical weight loss.

Table 1.1 – Changes in Biological Levels at Completion of Intervention

Bibliography

Franz, M. (2007). The Dilemma of Weight Loss in Diabetes. Diabetes Spectrum, 20(3), 133-136. doi:10.2337/diaspect.20.3.133

Miller, S., Marolen, K., & Beech, B. (2010). Perceptions of Physical Activity and Motivational Interviewing Among Rural African-American Women with Type 2 Diabetes. Women’s Health Issues , 20(1), 43-49. doi: 10.1016/j.whi.2009.09.004

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Knowledge Base

The Beginner's Guide to Statistical Analysis | 5 Steps & Examples

Statistical analysis means investigating trends, patterns, and relationships using quantitative data . It is an important research tool used by scientists, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

To draw valid conclusions, statistical analysis requires careful planning from the very start of the research process . You need to specify your hypotheses and make decisions about your research design, sample size, and sampling procedure.

After collecting data from your sample, you can organize and summarize the data using descriptive statistics . Then, you can use inferential statistics to formally test hypotheses and make estimates about the population. Finally, you can interpret and generalize your findings.

This article is a practical introduction to statistical analysis for students and researchers. We’ll walk you through the steps using two research examples. The first investigates a potential cause-and-effect relationship, while the second investigates a potential correlation between variables.

Step 1: write your hypotheses and plan your research design, step 2: collect data from a sample, step 3: summarize your data with descriptive statistics, step 4: test hypotheses or make estimates with inferential statistics, step 5: interpret your results, other interesting articles.

To collect valid data for statistical analysis, you first need to specify your hypotheses and plan out your research design.

Writing statistical hypotheses

The goal of research is often to investigate a relationship between variables within a population . You start with a prediction, and use statistical analysis to test that prediction.

A statistical hypothesis is a formal way of writing a prediction about a population. Every research prediction is rephrased into null and alternative hypotheses that can be tested using sample data.

While the null hypothesis always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Null hypothesis: A 5-minute meditation exercise will have no effect on math test scores in teenagers.
Alternative hypothesis: A 5-minute meditation exercise will improve math test scores in teenagers.
Null hypothesis: Parental income and GPA have no relationship with each other in college students.
Alternative hypothesis: Parental income and GPA are positively correlated in college students.

Planning your research design

A research design is your overall strategy for data collection and analysis. It determines the statistical tests you can use to test your hypothesis later on.

First, decide whether your research will use a descriptive, correlational, or experimental design. Experiments directly influence variables, whereas descriptive and correlational studies only measure variables.

In an experimental design , you can assess a cause-and-effect relationship (e.g., the effect of meditation on test scores) using statistical tests of comparison or regression.
In a correlational design , you can explore relationships between variables (e.g., parental income and GPA) without any assumption of causality using correlation coefficients and significance tests.
In a descriptive design , you can study the characteristics of a population or phenomenon (e.g., the prevalence of anxiety in U.S. college students) using statistical tests to draw inferences from sample data.

Your research design also concerns whether you’ll compare participants at the group level or individual level, or both.

In a between-subjects design , you compare the group-level outcomes of participants who have been exposed to different treatments (e.g., those who performed a meditation exercise vs those who didn’t).
In a within-subjects design , you compare repeated measures from participants who have participated in all treatments of a study (e.g., scores from before and after performing a meditation exercise).
In a mixed (factorial) design , one variable is altered between subjects and another is altered within subjects (e.g., pretest and posttest scores from participants who either did or didn’t do a meditation exercise).
Experimental
Correlational

First, you’ll take baseline test scores from participants. Then, your participants will undergo a 5-minute meditation exercise. Finally, you’ll record participants’ scores from a second math test.

In this experiment, the independent variable is the 5-minute meditation exercise, and the dependent variable is the math test score from before and after the intervention. Example: Correlational research design In a correlational study, you test whether there is a relationship between parental income and GPA in graduating college students. To collect your data, you will ask participants to fill in a survey and self-report their parents’ incomes and their own GPA.

Measuring variables

When planning a research design, you should operationalize your variables and decide exactly how you will measure them.

For statistical analysis, it’s important to consider the level of measurement of your variables, which tells you what kind of data they contain:

Categorical data represents groupings. These may be nominal (e.g., gender) or ordinal (e.g. level of language ability).
Quantitative data represents amounts. These may be on an interval scale (e.g. test score) or a ratio scale (e.g. age).

Many variables can be measured at different levels of precision. For example, age data can be quantitative (8 years old) or categorical (young). If a variable is coded numerically (e.g., level of agreement from 1–5), it doesn’t automatically mean that it’s quantitative instead of categorical.

Identifying the measurement level is important for choosing appropriate statistics and hypothesis tests. For example, you can calculate a mean score with quantitative data, but not with categorical data.

In a research study, along with measures of your variables of interest, you’ll often collect data on relevant participant characteristics.

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In most cases, it’s too difficult or expensive to collect data from every member of the population you’re interested in studying. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

Statistical analysis allows you to apply your findings beyond your own sample as long as you use appropriate sampling procedures . You should aim for a sample that is representative of the population.

Sampling for statistical analysis

There are two main approaches to selecting a sample.

Probability sampling: every member of the population has a chance of being selected for the study through random selection.
Non-probability sampling: some members of the population are more likely than others to be selected for the study because of criteria such as convenience or voluntary self-selection.

In theory, for highly generalizable findings, you should use a probability sampling method. Random selection reduces several types of research bias , like sampling bias , and ensures that data from your sample is actually typical of the population. Parametric tests can be used to make strong statistical inferences when data are collected using probability sampling.

But in practice, it’s rarely possible to gather the ideal sample. While non-probability samples are more likely to at risk for biases like self-selection bias , they are much easier to recruit and collect data from. Non-parametric tests are more appropriate for non-probability samples, but they result in weaker inferences about the population.

If you want to use parametric tests for non-probability samples, you have to make the case that:

your sample is representative of the population you’re generalizing your findings to.
your sample lacks systematic bias.

Keep in mind that external validity means that you can only generalize your conclusions to others who share the characteristics of your sample. For instance, results from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic samples (e.g., college students in the US) aren’t automatically applicable to all non-WEIRD populations.

If you apply parametric tests to data from non-probability samples, be sure to elaborate on the limitations of how far your results can be generalized in your discussion section .

Create an appropriate sampling procedure

Based on the resources available for your research, decide on how you’ll recruit participants.

Will you have resources to advertise your study widely, including outside of your university setting?
Will you have the means to recruit a diverse sample that represents a broad population?
Do you have time to contact and follow up with members of hard-to-reach groups?

Your participants are self-selected by their schools. Although you’re using a non-probability sample, you aim for a diverse and representative sample. Example: Sampling (correlational study) Your main population of interest is male college students in the US. Using social media advertising, you recruit senior-year male college students from a smaller subpopulation: seven universities in the Boston area.

Calculate sufficient sample size

Before recruiting participants, decide on your sample size either by looking at other studies in your field or using statistics. A sample that’s too small may be unrepresentative of the sample, while a sample that’s too large will be more costly than necessary.

There are many sample size calculators online. Different formulas are used depending on whether you have subgroups or how rigorous your study should be (e.g., in clinical research). As a rule of thumb, a minimum of 30 units or more per subgroup is necessary.

To use these calculators, you have to understand and input these key components:

Significance level (alpha): the risk of rejecting a true null hypothesis that you are willing to take, usually set at 5%.
Statistical power : the probability of your study detecting an effect of a certain size if there is one, usually 80% or higher.
Expected effect size : a standardized indication of how large the expected result of your study will be, usually based on other similar studies.
Population standard deviation: an estimate of the population parameter based on a previous study or a pilot study of your own.

Once you’ve collected all of your data, you can inspect them and calculate descriptive statistics that summarize them.

Inspect your data

There are various ways to inspect your data, including the following:

Organizing data from each variable in frequency distribution tables .
Displaying data from a key variable in a bar chart to view the distribution of responses.
Visualizing the relationship between two variables using a scatter plot .

By visualizing your data in tables and graphs, you can assess whether your data follow a skewed or normal distribution and whether there are any outliers or missing data.

A normal distribution means that your data are symmetrically distributed around a center where most values lie, with the values tapering off at the tail ends.

Mean, median, mode, and standard deviation in a normal distribution

In contrast, a skewed distribution is asymmetric and has more values on one end than the other. The shape of the distribution is important to keep in mind because only some descriptive statistics should be used with skewed distributions.

Extreme outliers can also produce misleading statistics, so you may need a systematic approach to dealing with these values.

Calculate measures of central tendency

Measures of central tendency describe where most of the values in a data set lie. Three main measures of central tendency are often reported:

Mode : the most popular response or value in the data set.
Median : the value in the exact middle of the data set when ordered from low to high.
Mean : the sum of all values divided by the number of values.

However, depending on the shape of the distribution and level of measurement, only one or two of these measures may be appropriate. For example, many demographic characteristics can only be described using the mode or proportions, while a variable like reaction time may not have a mode at all.

Calculate measures of variability

Measures of variability tell you how spread out the values in a data set are. Four main measures of variability are often reported:

Range : the highest value minus the lowest value of the data set.
Interquartile range : the range of the middle half of the data set.
Standard deviation : the average distance between each value in your data set and the mean.
Variance : the square of the standard deviation.

Once again, the shape of the distribution and level of measurement should guide your choice of variability statistics. The interquartile range is the best measure for skewed distributions, while standard deviation and variance provide the best information for normal distributions.

Using your table, you should check whether the units of the descriptive statistics are comparable for pretest and posttest scores. For example, are the variance levels similar across the groups? Are there any extreme values? If there are, you may need to identify and remove extreme outliers in your data set or transform your data before performing a statistical test.

From this table, we can see that the mean score increased after the meditation exercise, and the variances of the two scores are comparable. Next, we can perform a statistical test to find out if this improvement in test scores is statistically significant in the population. Example: Descriptive statistics (correlational study) After collecting data from 653 students, you tabulate descriptive statistics for annual parental income and GPA.

It’s important to check whether you have a broad range of data points. If you don’t, your data may be skewed towards some groups more than others (e.g., high academic achievers), and only limited inferences can be made about a relationship.

A number that describes a sample is called a statistic , while a number describing a population is called a parameter . Using inferential statistics , you can make conclusions about population parameters based on sample statistics.

Researchers often use two main methods (simultaneously) to make inferences in statistics.

Estimation: calculating population parameters based on sample statistics.
Hypothesis testing: a formal process for testing research predictions about the population using samples.

You can make two types of estimates of population parameters from sample statistics:

A point estimate : a value that represents your best guess of the exact parameter.
An interval estimate : a range of values that represent your best guess of where the parameter lies.

If your aim is to infer and report population characteristics from sample data, it’s best to use both point and interval estimates in your paper.

You can consider a sample statistic a point estimate for the population parameter when you have a representative sample (e.g., in a wide public opinion poll, the proportion of a sample that supports the current government is taken as the population proportion of government supporters).

There’s always error involved in estimation, so you should also provide a confidence interval as an interval estimate to show the variability around a point estimate.

A confidence interval uses the standard error and the z score from the standard normal distribution to convey where you’d generally expect to find the population parameter most of the time.

Hypothesis testing

Using data from a sample, you can test hypotheses about relationships between variables in the population. Hypothesis testing starts with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true in the population, and you use statistical tests to assess whether the null hypothesis can be rejected or not.

Statistical tests determine where your sample data would lie on an expected distribution of sample data if the null hypothesis were true. These tests give two main outputs:

A test statistic tells you how much your data differs from the null hypothesis of the test.
A p value tells you the likelihood of obtaining your results if the null hypothesis is actually true in the population.

Statistical tests come in three main varieties:

Comparison tests assess group differences in outcomes.
Regression tests assess cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
Correlation tests assess relationships between variables without assuming causation.

Your choice of statistical test depends on your research questions, research design, sampling method, and data characteristics.

Parametric tests

Parametric tests make powerful inferences about the population based on sample data. But to use them, some assumptions must be met, and only some types of variables can be used. If your data violate these assumptions, you can perform appropriate data transformations or use alternative non-parametric tests instead.

A regression models the extent to which changes in a predictor variable results in changes in outcome variable(s).

A simple linear regression includes one predictor variable and one outcome variable.
A multiple linear regression includes two or more predictor variables and one outcome variable.

Comparison tests usually compare the means of groups. These may be the means of different groups within a sample (e.g., a treatment and control group), the means of one sample group taken at different times (e.g., pretest and posttest scores), or a sample mean and a population mean.

A t test is for exactly 1 or 2 groups when the sample is small (30 or less).
A z test is for exactly 1 or 2 groups when the sample is large.
An ANOVA is for 3 or more groups.

The z and t tests have subtypes based on the number and types of samples and the hypotheses:

If you have only one sample that you want to compare to a population mean, use a one-sample test .
If you have paired measurements (within-subjects design), use a dependent (paired) samples test .
If you have completely separate measurements from two unmatched groups (between-subjects design), use an independent (unpaired) samples test .
If you expect a difference between groups in a specific direction, use a one-tailed test .
If you don’t have any expectations for the direction of a difference between groups, use a two-tailed test .

The only parametric correlation test is Pearson’s r . The correlation coefficient ( r ) tells you the strength of a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.

However, to test whether the correlation in the sample is strong enough to be important in the population, you also need to perform a significance test of the correlation coefficient, usually a t test, to obtain a p value. This test uses your sample size to calculate how much the correlation coefficient differs from zero in the population.

You use a dependent-samples, one-tailed t test to assess whether the meditation exercise significantly improved math test scores. The test gives you:

a t value (test statistic) of 3.00
a p value of 0.0028

Although Pearson’s r is a test statistic, it doesn’t tell you anything about how significant the correlation is in the population. You also need to test whether this sample correlation coefficient is large enough to demonstrate a correlation in the population.

A t test can also determine how significantly a correlation coefficient differs from zero based on sample size. Since you expect a positive correlation between parental income and GPA, you use a one-sample, one-tailed t test. The t test gives you:

a t value of 3.08
a p value of 0.001

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The final step of statistical analysis is interpreting your results.

Statistical significance

In hypothesis testing, statistical significance is the main criterion for forming conclusions. You compare your p value to a set significance level (usually 0.05) to decide whether your results are statistically significant or non-significant.

Statistically significant results are considered unlikely to have arisen solely due to chance. There is only a very low chance of such a result occurring if the null hypothesis is true in the population.

This means that you believe the meditation intervention, rather than random factors, directly caused the increase in test scores. Example: Interpret your results (correlational study) You compare your p value of 0.001 to your significance threshold of 0.05. With a p value under this threshold, you can reject the null hypothesis. This indicates a statistically significant correlation between parental income and GPA in male college students.

Note that correlation doesn’t always mean causation, because there are often many underlying factors contributing to a complex variable like GPA. Even if one variable is related to another, this may be because of a third variable influencing both of them, or indirect links between the two variables.

Effect size

A statistically significant result doesn’t necessarily mean that there are important real life applications or clinical outcomes for a finding.

In contrast, the effect size indicates the practical significance of your results. It’s important to report effect sizes along with your inferential statistics for a complete picture of your results. You should also report interval estimates of effect sizes if you’re writing an APA style paper .

With a Cohen’s d of 0.72, there’s medium to high practical significance to your finding that the meditation exercise improved test scores. Example: Effect size (correlational study) To determine the effect size of the correlation coefficient, you compare your Pearson’s r value to Cohen’s effect size criteria.

Decision errors

Type I and Type II errors are mistakes made in research conclusions. A Type I error means rejecting the null hypothesis when it’s actually true, while a Type II error means failing to reject the null hypothesis when it’s false.

You can aim to minimize the risk of these errors by selecting an optimal significance level and ensuring high power . However, there’s a trade-off between the two errors, so a fine balance is necessary.

Frequentist versus Bayesian statistics

Traditionally, frequentist statistics emphasizes null hypothesis significance testing and always starts with the assumption of a true null hypothesis.

However, Bayesian statistics has grown in popularity as an alternative approach in the last few decades. In this approach, you use previous research to continually update your hypotheses based on your expectations and observations.

Bayes factor compares the relative strength of evidence for the null versus the alternative hypothesis rather than making a conclusion about rejecting the null hypothesis or not.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Student’s t -distribution
Normal distribution
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Chi square tests
Confidence interval

Methodology

Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Data cleansing
Reproducibility vs Replicability
Peer review
Likert scale

Research bias

Implicit bias
Framing effect
Cognitive bias
Placebo effect
Hawthorne effect
Hostile attribution bias
Affect heuristic

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Descriptive Statistics | Definitions, Types, Examples
Inferential Statistics | An Easy Introduction & Examples
Choosing the Right Statistical Test | Types & Examples

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What Is Data Analysis? (With Examples)

Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful information, which can then be used to make informed decisions.

[Featured image] A female data analyst takes notes on her laptop at a standing desk in a modern office space

"It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts," Sherlock Holme's proclaims in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's A Scandal in Bohemia.

This idea lies at the root of data analysis. When we can extract meaning from data, it empowers us to make better decisions. And we’re living in a time when we have more data than ever at our fingertips.

Companies are wisening up to the benefits of leveraging data. Data analysis can help a bank to personalize customer interactions, a health care system to predict future health needs, or an entertainment company to create the next big streaming hit.

The World Economic Forum Future of Jobs Report 2020 listed data analysts and scientists as the top emerging job, followed immediately by AI and machine learning specialists, and big data specialists [ 1 ]. In this article, you'll learn more about the data analysis process, different types of data analysis, and recommended courses to help you get started in this exciting field.

Read more: How to Become a Data Analyst (with or Without a Degree)

Data analysis process

As the data available to companies continues to grow both in amount and complexity, so too does the need for an effective and efficient process by which to harness the value of that data. The data analysis process typically moves through several iterative phases. Let’s take a closer look at each.

Identify the business question you’d like to answer. What problem is the company trying to solve? What do you need to measure, and how will you measure it?

Collect the raw data sets you’ll need to help you answer the identified question. Data collection might come from internal sources, like a company’s client relationship management (CRM) software, or from secondary sources, like government records or social media application programming interfaces (APIs).

Clean the data to prepare it for analysis. This often involves purging duplicate and anomalous data, reconciling inconsistencies, standardizing data structure and format, and dealing with white spaces and other syntax errors.

Analyze the data. By manipulating the data using various data analysis techniques and tools, you can begin to find trends, correlations, outliers, and variations that tell a story. During this stage, you might use data mining to discover patterns within databases or data visualization software to help transform data into an easy-to-understand graphical format.

Interpret the results of your analysis to see how well the data answered your original question. What recommendations can you make based on the data? What are the limitations to your conclusions?

Watch this video to hear what data analysis how Kevin, Director of Data Analytics at Google, defines data analysis.

Learn more: What Does a Data Analyst Do? A Career Guide

Types of data analysis (with examples)

Data can be used to answer questions and support decisions in many different ways. To identify the best way to analyze your date, it can help to familiarize yourself with the four types of data analysis commonly used in the field.

In this section, we’ll take a look at each of these data analysis methods, along with an example of how each might be applied in the real world.

Descriptive analysis

Descriptive analysis tells us what happened. This type of analysis helps describe or summarize quantitative data by presenting statistics. For example, descriptive statistical analysis could show the distribution of sales across a group of employees and the average sales figure per employee.

Descriptive analysis answers the question, “what happened?”

Diagnostic analysis

If the descriptive analysis determines the “what,” diagnostic analysis determines the “why.” Let’s say a descriptive analysis shows an unusual influx of patients in a hospital. Drilling into the data further might reveal that many of these patients shared symptoms of a particular virus. This diagnostic analysis can help you determine that an infectious agent—the “why”—led to the influx of patients.

Diagnostic analysis answers the question, “why did it happen?”

Predictive analysis

So far, we’ve looked at types of analysis that examine and draw conclusions about the past. Predictive analytics uses data to form projections about the future. Using predictive analysis, you might notice that a given product has had its best sales during the months of September and October each year, leading you to predict a similar high point during the upcoming year.

Predictive analysis answers the question, “what might happen in the future?”

Prescriptive analysis

Prescriptive analysis takes all the insights gathered from the first three types of analysis and uses them to form recommendations for how a company should act. Using our previous example, this type of analysis might suggest a market plan to build on the success of the high sales months and harness new growth opportunities in the slower months.

Prescriptive analysis answers the question, “what should we do about it?”

This last type is where the concept of data-driven decision-making comes into play.

Read more : Advanced Analytics: Definition, Benefits, and Use Cases

What is data-driven decision-making (DDDM)?

Data-driven decision-making, sometimes abbreviated to DDDM), can be defined as the process of making strategic business decisions based on facts, data, and metrics instead of intuition, emotion, or observation.

This might sound obvious, but in practice, not all organizations are as data-driven as they could be. According to global management consulting firm McKinsey Global Institute, data-driven companies are better at acquiring new customers, maintaining customer loyalty, and achieving above-average profitability [ 2 ].

Get started with Coursera

If you’re interested in a career in the high-growth field of data analytics, you can begin building job-ready skills with the Google Data Analytics Professional Certificate . Prepare yourself for an entry-level job as you learn from Google employees — no experience or degree required. Once you finish, you can apply directly with more than 130 US employers (including Google) and advance to courses such as Google's Advanced Data Analytics Professional Certificate to continue deepening your skill set.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

Where is data analytics used ‎.

Just about any business or organization can use data analytics to help inform their decisions and boost their performance. Some of the most successful companies across a range of industries — from Amazon and Netflix to Starbucks and General Electric — integrate data into their business plans to improve their overall business performance. ‎

What are the top skills for a data analyst? ‎

Data analysis makes use of a range of analysis tools and technologies. Some of the top skills for data analysts include SQL, data visualization, statistical programming languages (like R and Python), machine learning, and spreadsheets.

Read : 7 In-Demand Data Analyst Skills to Get Hired in 2022 ‎

What is a data analyst job salary? ‎

Data from Glassdoor indicates that the average salary for a data analyst in the United States is $70,166 as of May 2023 [ 3 ]. How much you make will depend on factors like your qualifications, experience, and location. ‎

Do data analysts need to be good at math? ‎

Data analytics tends to be less math-intensive than data science. While you probably won’t need to master any advanced mathematics, a foundation in basic math and statistical analysis can help set you up for success.

Learn more: Data Analyst vs. Data Scientist: What’s the Difference? ‎

Article sources

World Economic Forum. " The Future of Jobs Report 2020 , https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-future-of-jobs-report-2020." Accessed May 18, 2023.

McKinsey & Company. " Five facts: How customer analytics boosts corporate performance , https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/marketing-and-sales/our-insights/five-facts-how-customer-analytics-boosts-corporate-performance." Accessed May 18, 2023.

Glassdoor. " Data Analyst Salaries , https://www.glassdoor.com/Salaries/data-analyst-salary-SRCH_KO0,12.htm" Accessed May 18, 2023.

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

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Data Analysis Essay Examples

General overview of data analytics.

As there is massive growth in technology, the usage of data is also increasing day by day due to social networks and cloud computing. Lots of data was getting used and there was no back up for the data, so analytics of data was introduced....

The Crusial Aspects of Lead Generation

Many sales executives talk of budget, needed timeframe and authority (i. e. BANT) to get leads. Some claim they need appointment with the right person and some businesses are using webinars, blog subscriptions, sign ups, emails etc. to reach buyers. The B2B sector is growing...

Gdpr, Trust and Personal Data Sharing: Literature Review

Following the revelations of the Facebook-Cambridge Analytical scandal, Google unlawfully collecting iPhone users’ data and the numerous other reports of data misuse cases, GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) has been implemented. GDPR law gives the individuals the choice on how an organisation may use, store...

Analysis of Data Management Strategies at Tesco

Tesco are a large multinational organisation. Initially Tesco was founded in 1919 by Jack Cohen as a grocery stall in East London, with the first store opened in Edgware in 1929. The first self-service store was opened in 1948 in Hertfordshire, with “a mixed reaction...

Target's Marketing Strategy: Pregnancy Prediction Algorithm

This report aims to highlight how the retail stores are using big data and predictive analytics to know their customer’s need and do personalized advertising. The report focuses on the enhanced marketing operation of US retail giant Target through the use of big data. Target...

Leadership and Data Fighting Activities

Our expanding reliance on data advances and self-ruling frameworks has heightened global worry for data and digital security even with politically, socially and religiously roused digital assaults. Data fighting strategies that meddle with the stream of data can challenge the survival of people and gatherings....

Pregnancy Loss: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

This report aims to highlight how the retail stores are using big data and predictive analytics to know their customer’s need and do personalized advertising. Report focuses on the enhanced marketing operation of US retail giant Target through the use of big data. Target was...

Analysis of the Article on Panther Conservation Project

According to the paper, the panther species of North America is listed as endangered and is one of the last from that area. A panther population of Florida was rediscovered and efforts immediately went underway to conserve, support, and protect them. The authors gathered data...

Analysis of the Study "Auto-join: Joining Tables by Leveraging Transformations"

The authors attempt to address the problem of joining tables when the datasets are collected from different sources and their key columns are formatted differently. Joins are very useful when it comes to combining records for data analysis and the present-day tools available allow to...

How Economic Development Has Made Womens Lifes Difficult

As indicated by Database (2002) underdeveloped nations allude to nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America, which were portrayed as nations with low wage, high neediness rate, joblessness, high populace and war. This exposition fundamentally show how monetary improvement tended to make the lives of...

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